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| − | This '''timeline of [[Science in medieval Islam|science]] and [[Inventions in the Islamic world|engineering]]''' in the '''[[Muslim world|Islamic world]]''' covers both the classical [[Islamic Golden Age]] (usually dated from the 7th to 16th centuries) and the post-classical period (after the 16th century). From the 19th century onwards, the advances by [[Muslim]] scientists and engineers occurred both within and outside of the Islamic world. All year dates are given according to the [[Gregorian calendar]] except where noted. |
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| − | == 7th century == |
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| − | ;c. 650: [[Calid]], an [[Umayyad]] prince, translated the literature of Egyptian [[alchemy]] into the [[Arabic language]]. |
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| − | == 8th century == |
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| − | ;700s: From the eighth century, the use of [[Ceramic glaze|glazed ceramics]] was prevalent in [[Islamic art]], usually assuming the form of elaborate [[pottery]].<ref>{{cite journal | last=Mason | first=Robert B. | title=New Looks at Old Pots: Results of Recent Multidisciplinary Studies of Glazed Ceramics from the Islamic World | journal=Muqarnas: Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture | date=1995 | volume=XII | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | id=ISBN 9004103147 | page=1}}</ref> The first Islamic [[Tin-glazing|opaque glazes]] can be found as blue-painted ware in [[Basra]], dating to around the 8th century.<ref name=Mason>{{cite journal | last=Mason | first=Robert B. | title=New Looks at Old Pots: Results of Recent Multidisciplinary Studies of Glazed Ceramics from the Islamic World | journal=Muqarnas: Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture | date=1995 | volume=XII | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | id=ISBN 9004103147 | page=5}}</ref> |
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| − | ;c. 700: An early industrial [[factory]] complex for [[Islamic pottery]] and [[glass]] production is built in [[Ar-Raqqah]], [[Syria]]. Extensive [[experiment]]ation is carried out at the complex, which is two [[kilometre]]s in length, and a variety of innovative high-purity glass are developed there. Two other similar complexes are also built,<ref name=Henderson/> and nearly three hundred<ref name=Henderson/> new [[Alchemy and chemistry in Islam|chemical recipes]] for glass are produced at all three sites.<ref name=Henderson>{{citation|first1=J.|last1=Henderson|first2=S. D.|last2=McLoughlin|first3=D. S.|last3=McPhail|year=2004|title=Radical changes in Islamic glass technology: evidence for conservatism and experimentation with new glass recipes from early and middle Islamic Raqqa, Syria|journal=Archaeometry|volume=46|issue=3|pages=439–68}}</ref> |
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| − | ;754: The first [[pharmacy]] and [[drugstore]]s are opened in [[Baghdad]].<ref name=Hadzovic>S. Hadzovic (1997). "Pharmacy and the great contribution of Arab-Islamic science to its development", ''Medicinski Arhiv'' '''51''' (1-2), p. 47-50.</ref> The first [[apothecary]] shops are also opened in the Islamic world.<ref>Sharif Kaf al-Ghazal, ''Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'', 2004 (3), pp. 3-9 [8].</ref> |
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| − | ;c. 763: The [[House of Wisdom]] is founded by the [[Abbasid]] [[caliph]] [[Harun al-Rashid]]. |
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| − | ;c. 763: First [[Bimaristan]] (hospital) opened in [[Baghdad]] during the [[Caliphate]] of [[Harun al-Rashid|Haroon-ar-Rashid]]."<ref name=Glubb>{{citation|last=Sir Glubb|first=John Bagot|author-link=John Bagot Glubb|year=1969|title=A Short History of the Arab Peoples|url=http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/quote2.html#glubb|accessdate=2008-01-25}}</ref><ref>{{citation|last=Micheau|first=Francoise|contribution=The Scientific Institutions in the Medieval Near East|pages=991–2}}, in {{Harv|Morelon|Rashed|1996|pp=985-1007}}</ref> <ref name=Syed-7-8>Ibrahim B. Syed PhD, "Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times", ''[[The Islamic Medical Association of North America|Journal of the Islamic Medical Association]]'', 2002 (2), p. 2-9 [7-8].</ref> |
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| − | ;c. 764: The streets of the newly constructed [[Baghdad]] are [[Pavement (material)|paved]] with [[tar]], derived from [[petroleum]], coming from natural [[oil fields]] in the region, through the process of [[destructive distillation]].<ref name=Ajram/> |
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| − | ;777: [[Muhammad al-Fazari]] and [[Yaqūb ibn Tāriq]] translate the ''[[Surya Siddhanta]]'' and ''[[Brahmasphutasiddhanta]]'', and compile them as the ''Zij al-Sindhind'', the first [[Zij]] treatise.<ref>{{Citation |last=Kennedy |first=Edward S. |year=1956 |title=A Survey of Islamic Astronomical Tables |journal=Transactions of the American Philosophical Society |volume=46 |issue=2 |doi=10.2307/1005726 |pages=123 }}</ref> |
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| − | ;c. 780: [[Geber]], a [[Alchemy and chemistry in Islam|Muslim chemist]] who is "considered by many to be the father of chemistry",<ref name=Derewenda>{{citation|first=Zygmunt S.|last=Derewenda|year=2007|title=On wine, chirality and crystallography|journal=Acta Crystallographica Section A: Foundations of Crystallography|volume=64|pages=246–258 [247]|doi=10.1107/S0108767307054293}}</ref><ref>John Warren (2005). "War and the Cultural Heritage of Iraq: a sadly mismanaged affair", ''Third World Quarterly'', Volume 26, Issue 4 & 5, p. 815-830.</ref><ref>Dr. A. Zahoor (1997). [http://www.unhas.ac.id/~rhiza/saintis/haiyan.html JABIR IBN HAIYAN (Geber)]. [[University of Indonesia]].</ref> introduced the [[experiment]]al [[scientific method]] for chemistry, as well as laboratory apparatus such as the [[alembic]], [[still]] and [[retort]], and chemical processes such as pure [[distillation]], [[liquefaction]],<ref name=Vallely/><ref name=Briffault>[[Robert Briffault]] (1938). ''The Making of Humanity'', p. 195.</ref> [[crystallisation]],<ref name=Derewenda/> and [[filtration]].<ref name=Vallely/><ref name=Briffault/> He also invented more than twenty types of laboratory apparatus,<ref name=Ansari>{{citation|title=Electrocyclic reactions: from fundamentals to research|first1=Farzana Latif|last1=Ansari|first2=Rumana|last2=Qureshi|first3=Masood Latif|last3=Qureshi|year=1998|publisher=Wiley-VCH|isbn=3527297553|page=2}}</ref> leading to the discovery of many [[chemical substances]].<ref name="r8">Strathern, Paul. (2000). Mendeleyev’s Dream – the Quest for the Elements. New York: Berkley Books.</ref> He also develops recipes for [[stained glass]] and describes [[lustreware]].<ref>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2091.htm Lustre Glass] and [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Notes/Notes%209.htm Lazaward And Zaffer Cobalt Oxide In Islamic And Western Lustre Glass And Ceramics], ''History of Science and Technology in Islam''.</ref> |
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| − | ;794: The first [[paper mill]]s are created in [[Baghdad]], marking the beginning of the [[paper]] industry.<ref name=Mahdavi>{{citation|first=Farid|last=Mahdavi|title=Review: ''Paper Before Print: The History and Impact of Paper in the Islamic World'' by Jonathan M. Bloom|journal=[[Journal of Interdisciplinary History]]|publisher=[[MIT Press]]|volume=34|issue=1|year=2003|pages=129-30}}</ref><ref>[http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=329 The Beginning of the Paper Industry], Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation</ref> |
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| − | ;c. 796: The first person credited for building the [[brass]] [[astrolabe]] in the Islamic world is reportedly [[Muhammad al-Fazari]].<ref>[[Richard Nelson Frye]], ''Golden Age of Persia'', p. 163.</ref> |
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| − | == 9th century == |
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| − | ;c. 800: [[Tin-glazing|Tin-opacified glazing]] is developed by Islamic potters.<ref name=CaigerSmith73>Caiger-Smith, Alan, ''Tin-Glaze Pottery in Europe and the Islamic World: The Tradition of 1000 Years in Maiolica, Faience and Delftware'', London, Faber and Faber, 1973 ISBN 0-571-09349-3</ref> |
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| − | ;c. 800: The first [[psychiatric hospital]] and insane asylum in Egypt is erected by Muslim physicians in [[Cairo]]. |
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| − | ;800: [[Al-Kindi]] is born. He contributed to [[early Islamic philosophy]], [[Islamic physics]], optics, [[Islamic medicine]], [[Islamic mathematics]], cryptography, and [[metallurgy]]. Worked at the [[House of Wisdom]] which was set up in 810. He introduces [[quantification]] into medicine in his ''[[De Gradibus]]'', and he is the first to isolate [[ethanol]] ([[alcohol]]) as a pure compound.<ref name=Alcohol>{{cite web |url=http://www.history-science-technology.com/Notes/Notes%207.htm |title=Alcohol and the Distillation of Wine in Arabic Sources |accessdate=2008-03-29 |last=Hassan |first=Ahmad Y |authorlink=Ahmad Y Hassan |work=History of Science and Technology in Islam}}</ref> |
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| − | ;800s: The first practical [[windmill]], the vertical axle windmill, is invented in eastern [[Greater Iran|Persia]], as recorded by the [[Geography in medieval Islam|Persian geographer]], [[Estakhri]].<ref name="Al-Hassan, Hill, p.54f.">[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [[Donald Routledge Hill]] (1986). ''Islamic Technology: An illustrated history'', p. 54. [[Cambridge University Press]]. ISBN 0-521-42239-6.</ref> |
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| − | ;800s: Another significant contribution of [[Islamic pottery]] was the development of [[Stoneware|stonepaste ceramics]], originating from 9th century Iraq.<ref name=Mason/> |
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| − | ;800s: [[Islamic astronomy|Muslim astronomers]] invent the universal [[sundial]]<ref>David A. King, "Islamic Astronomy", pp. 168-169</ref> and universal horary [[dial]]<ref>{{Harvard reference |last=King |first=David A. |year=2005 |title=In Synchrony with the Heavens, Studies in Astronomical Timekeeping and Instrumentation in Medieval Islamic Civilization: Instruments of Mass Calculation |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |isbn=900414188X }}</ref><ref>{{Harvard reference |last=King |first=David A. |year=2003 |date=December 2003 |title=14th-Century England or 9th-Century Baghdad? New Insights on the Elusive Astronomical Instrument Called Navicula de Venetiis |journal=[[Centaurus (journal)|Centaurus]] |volume=45 |issue=1-4 |pages=204-226 }}</ref> in [[Baghdad]]. |
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| − | ;810: [[Abbas Ibn Firnas]] is born. He "was a [[polymath]]: a [[Islamic medicine|physician]], a rather bad [[Arabic poetry|poet]], the first to make [[glass]] from [[Rock (geology)|stones]] ([[quartz]]), a student of [[Arabic music|music]], and inventor of some sort of [[metronome]]." He made the earliest recorded attempt at controlled [[flight]], devised means of manufacturing colorless [[glass]], and developed a process for cutting rock [[crystal]]. Another invention was an [[Weather control|artificial weather]] [[simulation]] room, in which spectators were astonished by artificial [[thunder]] and [[lightning]].<ref name=White>[[Lynn Townsend White, Jr.]] (Spring, 1961), "Eilmer of Malmesbury, an Eleventh Century Aviator: A Case Study of Technological Innovation, Its Context and Tradition", ''Technology and Culture'' '''2''' (2), p. 97-111 [100-1]</ref> He also describes clear colourless high-purity [[glass]].<ref name=Glass>{{cite web |url=http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2093.htm |title=Assessment of ''Kitab al-Durra al-Maknuna'' |accessdate=2008-03-29|last=Hassan |first=Ahmad Y |authorlink=Ahmad Y Hassan |work=History of Science and Technology in Islam}}</ref> |
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| − | ;c. 820: The first [[medical school]]s are founded in Baghdad during Al-Ma'mun's time. These also became the first medical [[universities]], where [[academic degree]]s and [[diploma]]s (''[[ijazah]]'') were issued to those students who were qualified to be practising [[doctors of medicine]].<ref name=Glubb/><ref name=Alatas>{{citation|title=From Jami`ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue|first=Syed Farid|last=Alatas|journal=Current Sociology|volume=54|issue=1|pages=112–32}}</ref> |
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| − | ;c. 820: 'Amr ibn Bahr [[al-Jahiz]] wrote a number of works on [[zoology]], [[Arabic grammar]], [[rhetoric]], and [[lexicography]]. His most famous work is the ''Book of Animals'', in which he first discussed [[food chain]]s,<ref>Frank N. Egerton, "A History of the Ecological Sciences, Part 6: Arabic Language Science - Origins and Zoological", ''Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America'', April 2002: 142-146 [143]</ref> was an early adherent of [[environmental determinism]], and argued that different [[human skin color]]s arose due to it.<ref>Lawrence I. Conrad (1982), "Taun and Waba: Conceptions of Plague and Pestilence in Early Islam", ''Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient'' '''25''' (3), pp. 268-307 [278].</ref> He also first described the [[The Origin of Species#Struggle for existence, and natural selection|struggle for existence]],<ref>Conway Zirkle (1941). Natural Selection before the "Origin of Species", ''Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society'' '''84''' (1), p. 71-123.</ref> and an early theory on [[evolution]] resembling [[natural selection]].<ref>Mehmet Bayrakdar (Third Quarter, 1983). "Al-Jahiz And the Rise of Biological Evolutionism", ''The Islamic Quarterly''. London. [http://www.salaam.co.uk/knowledge/al-jahiz.php]</ref> |
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| − | ;c. 820: [[Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī]] wrote the ''[[The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing]]'', more briefly referred to as ''al-jabr'', or [[algebra]]. "Algebra was a unifying theory which allowed [[rational number]]s, [[irrational number]]s, [[geometrical]] magnitudes, etc., to all be treated as "algebraic objects". It gave [[Islamic mathematics|mathematics]] a whole new development path so much broader in concept to that which had existed before, and provided a vehicle for future development of the subject."<ref name="one">[http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Arabic_mathematics.html Arabic mathematics], ''[[MacTutor History of Mathematics archive]]'', [[University of St Andrews]], Scotland</ref> |
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| − | ;c. 850: The [[Banū Mūsā]] brothers write the ''[[Book of Ingenious Devices]]'', in which they describe some of their inventions: the [[valve]], [[float valve]], [[Control theory|feedback controller]],<ref name=Mayr>Otto Mayr (1970). ''The Origins of Feedback Control'', [[MIT Press]].</ref> [[float chamber]], [[automatic control]],<ref name=Transfer>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2071.htm Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part II: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering], ''History of Science and Technology in Islam''.</ref> [[Automaton|Automatic]] [[flute]] player, [[Computer programming|Programmable]] [[machine]],<ref name=Koetsier>Teun Koetsier (2001). "On the prehistory of programmable machines: musical automata, looms, calculators", ''Mechanism and Machine theory'' '''36''', p. 590-591.</ref> [[Mechanical puzzle|Trick]] [[drinking vessel]]s, [[gas mask]], [[Grab (tool)|grab]], [[Dredging#Grab|clamshell grab]], [[fail-safe]] system, [[hurricane lamp]], self-feeding [[oil lamp]], self-trimming [[oil lamp]],<ref name=Hill2>{{Harvard reference |last=Hill |first=Donald R. |authorlink=Donald Routledge Hill |title=Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East |journal=Scientific American |year=1991 |date=May 1991 |pages=64-69}} ([[cf.]] {{Citation |last=Hill |first=Donald R. |author-link=Donald Routledge Hill |url=http://home.swipnet.se/islam/articles/HistoryofSciences.htm |title=Mechanical Engineering |accessdate=2008-01-22}})</ref> mechanical [[musical instrument]], and [[hydropower]]ed [[Organ (music)|organ]].<ref name=Fowler>{{citation|title=The Museum of Music: A History of Mechanical Instruments|first=Charles B.|last=Fowler|journal=Music Educators Journal|volume=54|issue=2|date=October 1967|pages=45–49}}</ref> |
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| − | ;c. 850: Establishment of [[madrasah|madrasahs]], forebears of modern [[University|universities]]. They were institutions of [[higher education]] and [[research]] which issued [[academic degree]]s at all levels ([[Bachelor's degree|bachelor]], [[Master's degree|master]] and [[doctorate]]).<ref name=Makdisi>{{citation|last=Makdisi|first=George|title=Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume=109|issue=2|date=April-June 1989|pages=175–182 [175–77]}}</ref><ref name=Alatas/> The first universities in Europe were influenced in many ways by the madrasahs in [[Al-Andalus|Islamic Spain]] and the [[Emirate of Sicily]] at the time, and in the Middle East during the [[Crusades]].<ref name=Makdisi>{{citation|last=Makdisi|first=John A.|title=The Islamic Origins of the Common Law|journal=[[North Carolina Law Review]]|year=1999|date=June 1999|volume=77|issue=5|pages=1635–1739}}</ref> |
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| − | ;c. 850: [[Oil field]]s first appear in [[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan]], and generate commercial activities and industry. |
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| − | ;c. 850: [[Stoneware]] originates in Iraq. |
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| − | ;c. 850: The basic [[water turbine]] is invented by [[Inventions in the Islamic world|Muslim engineers]] in the Islamic world. |
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| − | ;c. 850: [[Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī]] invents the [[Quadrant (instrument)|quadrant]], the [[mural instrument]]<ref name=King>[[David A. King]], "Islamic Astronomy", in Christopher Walker (1999), ed., ''Astronomy before the telescope'', p. 167-168. [[British Museum]] Press. ISBN 0-7141-2733-7.</ref>, the sine quadrant (also known as the "Sinecal Quadrant"; the Arabic term for it is "[[Rubul_mujayyab|Rubul Mujayyab]]") which was used for solving trigonometric problems and making astronomical observations. He also invented the [[alidade]].<ref>David A. King (2002). "A Vetustissimus Arabic Text on the Quadrans Vetus", ''Journal for the History of Astronomy'' '''33''', p. 237-255 [238-239].</ref> |
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| − | ;c 850: [[Abu Kamil]] begins to understand what we would write in symbols as <math>x^n \cdot x^m = x^{m+n}</math>.<ref name="one"/> |
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| − | ;c. 852: [[Abbas Ibn Firnas]] (Armen Firman) made the first successful [[parachute]] fall using a huge wing-like cloak to break his fall, near [[Córdoba, Spain]]. |
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| − | ;859: The [[University of Al Karaouine]] in [[Fes, Morocco]] is founded by Princess Fatima al-Fihri. It is recognized by the [[Guinness World Records|Guinness Book of World Records]] as the oldest [[academic degree]]-granting [[university]] in the world<ref>''The Guinness Book Of Records'', 1998, p. 242, ISBN 0-5535-7895-2</ref> |
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| − | ;865: [[Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi]] is born. In his ''Secretum secretorum'', he described a variety of new tools for [[melting]] substances and the preparation of [[drug]]s.<ref name=Anawati>Georges C. Anawati, "Arabic alchemy", p. 868, in {{Harv|Rashed|Morelon|1996|pp=853-902}}</ref> He also classified the natural [[chemical substance]]s that were discovered by him and his Muslim predecessors ([[Calid]], [[Geber]] and [[al-Kindi]]), including a variety of [[Derivative (chemistry)|derivative]] and artificial substances.<ref name=Hassan-Alchemy>{{cite web |url= http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2010.htm |title= Arabic Alchemy: Science of the Art |accessdate=2008-03-29 |last=Hassan |first=Ahmad Y |authorlink=Ahmad Y Hassan |work=History of Science and Technology in Islam}}</ref> |
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| − | ;875: [[Abbas Ibn Firnas]] reportedly successfully employed an [[ornithopter]] for manned [[flight]].<ref name=White/> |
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| − | ;c. 880: [[Al-Dinawari]], the founder of [[Muslim Agricultural Revolution|Arabic botany]], writes the ''Book of Plants'', which describes at least 637 plants; it discusses the phases of [[plant growth]] and the production of flowers and fruit. |
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| − | ;c. 880: [[Thabit Ibn Qurra]] discovers the [[Thabit number|theorem]] by which pairs of [[amicable number]]s can be found; i.e., two numbers such that each is the sum of the proper divisors of the other.<ref name="one"/> |
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| − | == 10th century == |
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| − | ;c. 900: The first [[public library]] and [[lending library]] are built in the Islamic world.<ref name=Barrett>[[Peter Barrett]] (2004), ''Science and Theology Since Copernicus: The Search for Understanding'', p. 18, [[Continuum International Publishing Group]], ISBN 056708969X.</ref> The [[library catalog]] is also invented in Islamic libraries.<ref>{{citation|last=Micheau|first=Francoise|contribution=The Scientific Institutions in the Medieval Near East|pages=988–991}} in {{Harvard reference |last1=Morelon |first1=Régis |last2=Rashed |first2=Roshdi |year=1996 |title=[[Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science]] |volume=3 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0415124107 |pp=985-1007}}</ref> |
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| − | ;900s: [[Inventions in the Islamic world|Muslim engineers]] invented a variety of [[surveying]] instruments for accurate [[levelling]], including a wooden board with a [[plumb line]] and two [[hook]]s, an [[equilateral triangle]] with a plumb line and two hooks, and a "[[Reed (instrument)|reed]] level". They also invented a rotating [[alhidade]] used for accurate alignment, and a surveying [[astrolabe]] used for alignment, measuring angles, [[triangulation]], finding the [[width]] of a [[river]], and the distance between two points separated by an impassable obstruction.<ref>[[Donald Routledge Hill]] (1996), "Engineering", pp. 766-9, in {{Harv|Rashed|Morelon|1996|pp=751-95}}</ref> |
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| − | ;900s: [[Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi]] (Rhazes), in his ''Doubts about Galen'', was the first to prove both [[Aristotle]]'s theory of [[classical element]]s and [[Galen]]'s theory of [[humorism]] wrong using an [[experiment]]al method.<ref>G. Stolyarov II (2002), "Rhazes: The Thinking Western Physician", ''The Rational Argumentator'', Issue VI.</ref> He also accurately described the chemical processes of [[calcination]],<ref name=Chemical>{{cite web|last=Hassan|first=Ahmad Y|authorlink=Ahmad Y Hassan|url=http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2072.htm|title=Technology Transfer in the Chemical Industries|accessdate=2008-05-26|publisher=[[Ahmad Y Hassan]]}}</ref><ref name=Anawati/> [[solution]], [[sublimation (chemistry)|sublimation]], [[amalgam]]ation, [[ceration]], and a method of converting a substance into a thick [[paste]] or [[Fusible alloy|fusible solid]].<ref name=Anawati/> |
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| − | ;900s: The first reference to an "observation tube" is found in the work of [[Al-Battani]], and the first exact description of the observation tube was given by [[al-Biruni]], in a section of his work that is "dedicated to verifying the presence of the new crescent on the horizon." Though these early observation tubes did not have [[Lens (optics)|lenses]], they "enabled an observer to focus on a part of the sky by eliminating [[light]] interference." These observation tubes were later adopted in [[Latin]]-speaking Europe, where they influenced the development of the [[telescope]].<ref>Regis Morelon, "General Survey of Arabic Astronomy", pp. 9-10, in {{Harv|Rashed|Morelon|1996|pp=1-19}}</ref> |
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| − | ;c. 900: The first [[wind power]]ed [[gristmill]]s and [[Sugar refinery|sugar refineries]] appear in [[Afghanistan]], [[Pakistan]] and [[Iran]].<ref name=Lucas-65>Adam Lucas (2006), ''Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology'', p. 65. BRILL, ISBN 9004146490.</ref> The first [[gear]]ed gristmills<ref>[[Donald Routledge Hill]] (1996), "Engineering", p. 781, in {{Harvard reference |last1=Rashed |first1=Roshdi |last2=Morelon |first2=Régis |year=1996 |title=[[Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science]] |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0415124107 |pages=751-95}}</ref> and the on/off [[switch]] are also invented by [[Inventions in the Islamic world|Muslim engineers]].<ref> F. L. Lewis (1992), ''Applied Optimal Control and Estimation'', Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hall, New Jersey.</ref> Other inventions from the Islamic world include the [[paned window]], [[Street light|street lamp]],<ref name=Garrison>[[Fielding H. Garrison]], ''History of Medicine'': |
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| − | {{quote|"The [[Saracen]]s themselves were the originators not only of [[algebra]], [[chemistry]], and [[geology]], but of many of the so-called improvements or refinements of civilization, such as [[Street light|street lamp]]s, [[window]]-[[Paned window|panes]], [[firework]], [[string instrument|stringed instruments]], [[cultivation|cultivated]] [[fruit]]s, [[perfume]]s, [[spice]]s, etc..."}}</ref> [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] [[escapement]] mechanism, [[bridge]] [[dam]] and [[Mill (grinding)|milling]] [[dam]] in [[Iran]],<ref name=Hill-Engineering/><ref name=Lucas>Adam Lucas (2006), ''Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology'', p. 62. BRILL, ISBN 9004146490.</ref> and [[diversion dam]] in [[Iraq]].<ref name=Hill-Engineering>[[Donald Routledge Hill]] (1996), "Engineering", p. 759, in {{Harvard reference |last1=Rashed |first1=Roshdi |last2=Morelon |first2=Régis |year=1996 |title=[[Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science]] |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0415124107 |pages=751-795}}</ref> |
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| − | ;900s: [[Islamic astronomy|Muslim astronomers]] invent the [[almucantar]] [[Quadrant (instrument)|quadrant]],<ref>Elly Dekker (1995), "An unrecorded medieval astrolabe quadrant from c. 1300", ''Annals of Science'' '''52''' (1), p. 1-47 [6].</ref> [[Mariner's astrolabe|navigational astrolabe]],<ref>Robert Hannah (1997). "''The Mapping of the Heavens'' by Peter Whitfield", ''Imago Mundi'' '''49''', pp. 161-162.</ref> and vertical [[sundial]].<ref name=King-Astronomy>{{citation|first=David A.|last=King|contribution=Astronomy and Islamic society|pages=163–8}}, in {{Harvard reference |last1=Rashed |first1=Roshdi |last2=Morelon |first2=Régis |year=1996 |title=[[Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science]] |volume=1 & 3 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0415124107 |pages=128-184}}</ref> |
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| − | ;c. 925: [[Kerosene]] was produced from the [[distillation]] of [[petroleum]] and was first described by [[al-Razi]] in [[Baghdad]]. He also described the first [[kerosene lamp]]s (''naffatah'') used for heating and [[lighting]] in his ''Kitab al-Asrar'' (''Book of Secrets'').<ref>Zayn Bilkadi ([[University of California, Berkeley]]), "The Oil Weapons", ''[[Saudi Aramco World]]'', January-February 1995, p. 20-27.</ref> |
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| − | ;c. 930: The [[Cartography|cartographic]] [[Grid reference|grid]] is invented in [[Baghdad]],<ref name=Reflections>David A. King, "Reflections on some new studies on applied science in Islamic societies (8th-19th centuries)", ''Islam & Science'', June 2004</ref> and [[graph paper]] is also invented in the Islamic world.<ref>David J Roxburgh (2000), ''Muqarnas: An Annual on the Visual Culture of the Islamic World'', p. 21, [[Brill Publishers]], ISBN 9004116699.</ref><ref>Josef W. Meri (2006), ''Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia'', p. 75, [[Taylor and Francis]], ISBN 0415966914.</ref><ref>David A. King (1999), ''World-maps for Finding the Direction and Distance to Mecca: Innovation and Tradition in Islamic Science'', p. 17, [[Brill Publishers]], ISBN 9004113673.</ref> |
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| − | ;953: The earliest historical record of a reservoir [[fountain pen]] dates back to 953, when [[Al-Muizz Lideenillah|Ma'ād al-Mu'izz]], the [[caliph]] of [[Egypt]], demanded a pen which would not stain his hands or clothes, and was provided with a pen which held ink in a reservoir and delivered it to the nib via gravity and capillary action, as recorded by [[Qadi]] al-Nu'man [[Banu Tamim|al-Tamimi]] (d. 974) in his ''Kitdb al-Majalis wa'l-musayardt''.<ref>{{citation|journal=[[Journal of Semitic Studies]]|volume=XXVl|issue=i|date=Autumn 1981|title=A Mediaeval Islamic Prototype of the Fountain Pen?|first=C. E.|last=Bosworth}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = "Origins of the Fountain Pen " | publisher = Muslimheritage.com | url = http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?articleID=365 | dateformat = mdy| accessdate = September 18 2007 }}</ref> |
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| − | ;c. 953: [[Al-Karaji]] defined various [[monomial]]s and gave rules for the [[product (mathematics)|products]] of any two of them.<ref name="one"/> He also discovered the [[binomial theorem]] for [[integer]] [[exponent]]s.<ref name="one"/> |
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| − | ;964: [[Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi]] writes the ''[[Book of Fixed Stars]]'', a [[star catalogue]] thoroughly illustrated with observations and descriptions of the [[star]]s, their positions, their [[apparent magnitude]]s and their colour. He identified the [[Large Magellanic Cloud]], which is visible from [[Yemen]], though not from Isfahan; it was not seen by Europeans until [[Ferdinand Magellan|Magellan]]'s voyage in the 16th century. <ref name="obspm">{{cite web | title=Observatoire de Paris (Abd-al-Rahman Al Sufi) | url=http://messier.obspm.fr/xtra/Bios/alsufi.html | accessdate=2007-04-19 }}</ref><ref name="obspm2">{{cite web | title=Observatoire de Paris (LMC) | url=http://messier.obspm.fr/xtra/ngc/lmc.html | accessdate=2007-04-19 }}</ref> He also made earliest recorded observation of the [[Andromeda Galaxy]] in 964 AD; describing it as a "small cloud".<ref name="NSOG">{{cite book |last= Kepple |first= George Robert |coauthors= Glen W. Sanner |title= The Night Sky Observer's Guide, Volume 1 |publisher= Willmann-Bell, Inc. |year= 1998 |isbn= 0-943396-58-1 |page=18 }}</ref> |
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| − | ;965: [[Al-Uqlidisi]] modifies arithmetic methods for the Indian numeral system to make it possible for pen and paper use. Until then, doing calculations with the Indian numerals necessitated the use of a dust board as noted earlier. |
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| − | ;c 980: [[Ibn al-Haytham]] is the first to state [[Wilson's theorem]].<ref name="one"/> |
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| − | ;994: [[Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi]] constructs the first [[sextant (astronomical)|astronomical sextant]] in [[Ray, Iran]]. |
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| − | ;996: The [[gear]]ed mechanical [[astrolabe]], featuring eight gear-wheels, is invented by [[Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/introduction/woi_knowledge.html|title=Islam, Knowledge, and Science|publisher=[[University of Southern California]]|accessdate=2008-01-22}}</ref> |
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| − | == 11th century == |
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| − | ;c. 1000: Ammar ibn Ali of [[Mosul]] writes the ''Choice of Eye Diseases'', a landmark text on [[ophthalmology in medieval Islam]]. In [[cataract surgery]], He attempted the earliest extraction of [[cataract]]s using [[suction]]. He invented a hollow metallic [[syringe]] [[hypodermic needle]], which he applied through the [[sclerotic]] and successfully extracted the cataracts through suction.<ref>Ibrahim B. Syed PhD, "Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times", ''Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'' '''2''' (2002): 2-9 [7].</ref><ref>{{citation|title=Origins of Neuroscience: A History of Explorations Into Brain Function|first=Stanley|last=Finger|year=1994|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=0195146948|page=70}}</ref> |
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| − | ;c. 1000: [[Abū Sahl al-Qūhī|Abu Sahl al-Quhi]] discovers that the [[weight|heaviness]] of bodies vary with their distance from the [[center of mass|center]] of the Earth, and solves [[equation]]s higher than the [[Quadratic equation|second degree]]. |
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| − | ;c. 1000: [[Al-Karaji]] writes a book containing the first known [[Mathematical proof|proofs]] by [[mathematical induction]]. He who used it to prove the [[binomial theorem]], [[Pascal's triangle]], and the sum of [[integral]] [[Cube (algebra)|cubes]].<ref>Victor J. Katz (1998). ''History of Mathematics: An Introduction'', p. 255-259. [[Addison-Wesley]]. ISBN 0321016181.</ref> |
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| − | ;c. 1000: Clear [[glass]] [[mirror]]s produced in [[al-Andalus]].<ref name=Ajram>{{cite book|author=Dr. Kasem Ajram|title=The Miracle of Islam Science|edition=2nd Edition|publisher=Knowledge House Publishers|year=1992|isbn=0-911119-43-4}}</ref> |
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| − | ;c. 1000: [[Cob (material)|Cobwork]] (''tabya'') first appears in the [[Maghreb]] and [[al-Andalus]].<ref>[[Donald Routledge Hill]] (1996), "Engineering", p. 766, in {{Harvard reference |last1=Rashed |first1=Roshdi |last2=Morelon |first2=Régis |year=1996 |title=[[Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science]] |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0415124107 |pages=751-795}}</ref> |
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| − | ;c. 1000: In [[Al-Andalus]], Ibn Khalaf al-Muradi invents complex [[gear]]ing, [[Epicyclic gearing]], segmental [[gear]]ing, and the [[gear]]ed mechanical [[clock]]. [[Inventions in the Islamic world|Muslim engineers]] also invent the [[Maintaining power|Weight-driven]] mechanical [[clock]].<ref name=Transfer/> |
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| − | ;1000: [[Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi]] publishes his 30-volume medical encyclopedia, the ''[[Al-Tasrif]]'', which remains a standard textbook in Muslim and European [[University|universities]] until the 16th century. The book first introduced many [[surgical instruments]], including the first instruments unique to women<ref name=Saad>Bashar Saad, Hassan Azaizeh, Omar Said (October 2005). "Tradition and Perspectives of Arab Herbal Medicine: A Review", ''Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine'' '''2''' (4), p. 475-479 [476]. [[Oxford University Press]].</ref> and a variety of other instruments.<ref>Khaled al-Hadidi (1978), "The Role of Muslim Scholars in Oto-rhino-Laryngology", ''The Egyptian Journal of O.R.L.'' '''4''' (1), p. 1-15. ([[cf.]] [http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=674 Ear, Nose and Throat Medical Practice in Muslim Heritage], Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization.)</ref><ref name=Kaadan>Abdul Nasser Kaadan PhD, "Albucasis and Extraction of Bladder Stone", ''Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'', 2004 (3): 28-33.</ref><ref name=Vallely>Paul Vallely, [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_20060311/ai_n16147544 How Islamic Inventors Changed the World], ''[[The Independent]]'', 11 March 2006.</ref> He also invented the [[Adhesive bandage|plaster]]<ref>Zafarul-Islam Khan, [http://milligazette.com/Archives/15-1-2000/Art5.htm At The Threshhold Of A New Millennium – II], ''The Milli Gazette''.</ref> cotton [[Dressing (medical)|dressing]],<ref name=Patricia>Patricia Skinner (2001), [http://archive.is/20120629144443/findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g2603/is_0007/ai_2603000716 Unani-tibbi], ''Encyclopedia of Alternative Medicine''</ref> oral [[anaesthesia]], [[inhalational anaesthetic]], and [[anaesthetic]] sponge.<ref name=Hunke>[[Sigrid Hunke]] (1969), ''Allah Sonne Uber Abendland, Unser Arabische Erbe'', Second Edition, p. 279-280 ([[cf.]] Prof. Dr. M. Taha Jasser, [http://www.islamset.com/hip/i_medcin/taha_jasser.html Anaesthesia in Islamic medicine and its influence on Western civilization], Conference on Islamic Medicine)</ref> |
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| − | ;c. 1010: [[Al-Sijzi]] invents the ''Zuraqi'', a unique [[astrolabe]] designed for a [[heliocentric]] planetary model in which the Earth is moving rather than the sky.<ref>Seyyed [[Hossein Nasr]] (1993), ''An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines'', p. 135-136. [[State University of New York Press]], ISBN 0791415163.</ref> |
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| − | ;c. 1010: [[Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]] hypothesized that [[Indian subcontinent|India]] was once covered by the [[Indian Ocean]] while observing rock formations at the mouths of rivers,<ref>[[Abdus Salam]] (1984), "Islam and Science". In C. H. Lai (1987), ''Ideals and Realities: Selected Essays of Abdus Salam'', 2nd ed., World Scientific, Singapore, p. 179-213.</ref> introduced techniques to measure the Earth and distances on it using [[triangulation]], and measured the [[radius]] of the Earth as 6339.6 km, the most accurate up until the 16th century.<ref name=Biruni/> |
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| − | ;1019: In [[Afghanistan]], [[Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]] observed and described the [[solar eclipse]] on April 8, 1019, and the [[lunar eclipse]] on September 17, 1019, in detail, and gave the exact locations of the stars during the lunar eclipse. He also invents the [[Orthographic projection (cartography)|Orthographical]] [[astrolabe]]<ref name=Khwarizm/> and [[planisphere]].<ref name=Khwarizm>[http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=482 Khwarizm], Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.</ref><ref name=Durant>[[Will Durant]] (1950). ''[[The Story of Civilization]] IV: The Age of Faith'', p. 239-45.</ref> He also invents a [[gear]]ed mechanical [[lunisolar calendar]] [[analog computer]] with a [[gear train]] and eight gear-wheels.<ref name=Biruni>[[Donald Routledge Hill]] (1985). "Al-Biruni's mechanical calendar", ''Annals of Science'' '''42''', p. 139-163.</ref><ref name=Oren>Tuncer Oren (2001). "Advances in Computer and Information Sciences: From Abacus to Holonic Agents", ''Turk J Elec Engin'' '''9''' (1), p. 63-70 [64].</ref> |
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| − | ;c. 1020: [[Avicenna]] invents the chemical process of [[steam distillation]] and uses it extract [[fragrance]]s and [[essential oil]]s.<ref name=Ericksen>Marlene Ericksen (2000). ''Healing with Aromatherapy'', p. 9. McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 0658003828.</ref> He also invents an air [[thermometer]] for use in his laboratory [[experiment]]s.<ref>[[Robert Briffault]] (1938). ''The Making of Humanity'', p. 191.</ref> He also develops the concept of [[momentum]], when he referred to [[Theory of impetus|impetus]] as being proportional to [[weight]] times [[velocity]], a precursor to the concept of momentum in [[Newton's laws of motion|Newton's second law of motion]]. His theory of motion was also consistent with the concept of [[inertia]] in Newton's first law of motion.<ref>A. Sayili (1987), "Ibn Sīnā and Buridan on the Motion of the Projectile", ''Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences'' '''500''' (1), p. 477–482.</ref> |
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| − | ;1020: The [[gear]]ed mechanical [[astrolabe]] is perfected by Ibn Samh in [[Al-Andalus]]. These can be considered as an ancestor of the [[mechanical clock]].<ref>[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/introduction/woi_knowledge.html Islam, Knowledge, and Science.] [[University of Southern California]].</ref> |
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| − | ;1021: [[Alhazen]], a [[Physics in medieval Islam|Muslim physicist]] considered the father of [[optics]] and pioneer of [[scientific method]],<ref>Bradley Steffens (2006), ''Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist'', Morgan Reynolds Publishing, ISBN 1599350246. ([[cf.]] [http://www.ibnalhaytham.net/custom.em?pid=571860 Reviews of ''Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist''], ''The Critics'', [[Barnes & Noble]].)</ref> completes ''[[Book of Optics]]''.<ref> H. Salih, M. Al-Amri, M. El Gomati (2005). "The Miracle of Light", ''A World of Science'' '''3''' (3). [[UNESCO]].</ref> It correctly explains [[light]] and [[Visual perception|vision]], and introduces [[experiment]]al scientific method, laying the foundations for [[experimental physics]]. It correctly explains and proves intromission theory of [[visual perception|vision]] and describes [[experiment]]s on various optical phenomena.<ref>Dr. Mahmoud Al Deek. "Ibn Al-Haitham: Master of Optics, Mathematics, Physics and Medicine", ''Al Shindagah'', November-December 2004.</ref><ref>J. J. O'Connor and E. F. Robertson (2002). [http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Light_1.html Light through the ages: Ancient Greece to Maxwell], ''[[MacTutor History of Mathematics archive]]''.</ref> It also discusses [[experimental psychology]]<ref name=Khaleefa>Omar Khaleefa (Summer 1999). "Who Is the Founder of Psychophysics and Experimental Psychology?", ''American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences'' '''16''' (2).</ref><ref>Bradley Steffens (2006). ''Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist'', Chapter 5. Morgan Reynolds Publishing. ISBN 1599350246.</ref> and describes various optical instruments<ref>{{citation|last1=Kriss|first1=Timothy C.|last2=Kriss|first2=Vesna Martich|title=History of the Operating Microscope: From Magnifying Glass to Microneurosurgery|journal=Neurosurgery|volume=42|issue=4|pages=899–907|date=April 1998}}</ref><ref name=Elliott>R. S. Elliott (1966), ''Electromagnetics'', Chapter 1, [[McGraw-Hill]]</ref> such as [[camera obscura]].<ref name=Wade>Nicholas J. Wade, Stanley Finger (2001), "The eye as an optical instrument: from camera obscura to Helmholtz's perspective", ''Perception'' '''30''' (10), p. 1157-1177.</ref> |
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| − | ;c. 1021: [[Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]], and later [[al-Khazini]], were the first to apply [[experiment]]al [[scientific method]]s to [[mechanics]], especially the fields of [[statics]] and [[Dynamics (physics)|dynamics]], particularly for determining [[specific weight]]s, such as those based on the theory of [[balance]]s and [[Weighing scale|weighing]]. These [[Islamic physics|Muslim physicists]] unified statics and dynamics into the science of mechanics, and they combined the fields of [[hydrostatics]] with dynamics to give birth to [[hydrodynamics]].<ref name=Rozhanskaya-642>Mariam Rozhanskaya and I. S. Levinova (1996), "Statics", p. 642, in {{Harv|Morelon|Rashed|1996|pp=614-642}}</ref> |
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| − | ;1025: [[Avicenna]] publishes his 14-volume encyclopedia, ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'', which remains a standard text at European [[University|universities]] until the 17th century. Its contributions include introduction of systematic [[experiment]]ation and [[quantification]],<ref>Katharine Park (March 1990). "''Avicenna in Renaissance Italy: The Canon and Medical Teaching in Italian Universities after 1500'' by Nancy G. Siraisi", ''The Journal of Modern History'' '''62''' (1), p. 169-170.</ref> discovery of [[Infectious disease|contagious disease]],<ref name=Sarton>[[George Sarton]], ''Introduction to the History of Science'' ([[cf.]] Dr. A. Zahoor and Dr. Z. Haq (1997), [http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/Introl1.html ''Quotations From Famous Historians of Science''], [http://www.cyberistan.org Cyberistan])</ref> and introduction of [[experimental medicine]],<ref name=Huff>{{Citation |first=Toby |last=Huff |year=2003 |title=The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West |page=218 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=0521529948 }}</ref> [[clinical trial]]s,<ref name=Tschanz>David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", ''Heart Views'' '''4''' (2).</ref><ref name=Eldredge>Jonathan D. Eldredge (2003), "The Randomised Controlled Trial design: unrecognized opportunities for health sciences librarianship", ''Health Information and Libraries Journal'' '''20''', p. 34–44 [36].</ref><ref name=Bloom>Bernard S. Bloom, Aurelia Retbi, Sandrine Dahan, Egon Jonsson (2000), "Evaluation Of Randomized Controlled Trials On Complementary And Alternative Medicine", ''International Journal of Technology Assessment in Health Care'' '''16''' (1), p. 13–21 [19].</ref><ref name=Brater-449>D. Craig Brater and Walter J. Daly (2000), "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century", ''Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics'' '''67''' (5), p. 447-450 [449].</ref><ref name=Daly>Walter J. Daly and D. Craig Brater (2000), "Medieval contributions to the search for truth in clinical medicine", ''Perspectives in Biology and Medicine'' '''43''' (4), p. 530–540 [536], [[Johns Hopkins University Press]].</ref> and [[clinical pharmacology]].<ref name=Brater-448>D. Craig Brater and Walter J. Daly (2000), "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century", ''Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics'' '''67''' (5), p. 447-450 [448].</ref> It also discusses [[neuropsychiatry]],<ref name=Workman>S. Safavi-Abbasi, L. B. C. Brasiliense, R. K. Workman (2007), "The fate of medical knowledge and the neurosciences during the time of Genghis Khan and the Mongolian Empire", ''Neurosurgical Focus'' '''23''' (1), E13, p. 3.</ref> the idea of a [[syndrome]],<ref name=Goodman>Lenn Evan Goodman (2003), ''Islamic Humanism'', p. 155, [[Oxford University Press]], ISBN 0195135806.</ref> and early [[unproven cancer therapy|cancer therapy]].<ref name=Sari>{{cite web|author=Prof. Nil Sari ([[Istanbul University]], Cerrahpasha Medical School)|title=Hindiba: A Drug for Cancer Treatment in Muslim Heritage|publisher=FSTC Limited|date=06 June, 2007|url=http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=707}}</ref><ref>{{patent|US|5663196|Methods for treating neoplastic disorders}}</ref><ref>{{citation|title=The Historical Basis for the Aesophageal Cancer Belt of South-Central Asia|last=Saidi|first=F., MD|journal=Archives of Iranian Medicine|volume=2|issue=1|date=January 1999}}</ref> |
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| − | ;1027: [[Avicenna]] (Ibn Sina) writes one of the first scientific [[encyclopedia]]s, ''[[The Book of Healing]]''. Its contributions include nine volumes on [[Logic in Islamic philosophy|Avicennian logic]]; eight on the [[natural science]]s; four on the [[quadrivium]] of [[arithmetic]], [[Islamic astronomy|astronomy]], [[geometry]] and [[music]]; a number of volumes on [[early Islamic philosophy]], [[Islamic mathematics]], [[metaphysics]] and [[psychology]];<ref>Lenn Evan Goodman (1992), ''Avicenna'', p. 31, [[Routledge]], ISBN 041501929X.</ref> the astronomical theory that [[Venus]] is closer to Earth than the Sun; and a [[Geology|geological]] hypothesis on two causes of [[mountain]]s.<ref>Stephen Toulmin and June Goodfield (1965). ''The Discovery of Time'', p. 64. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.</ref> |
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| − | ;1028: [[Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī]] is born. He invents the "Saphaea", the first universal latitude-independent [[astrolabe]] which did not depend on the [[latitude]] of the observer and could be used anywhere. He also invents the [[equatorium]], a mechanical [[analog computer]] device,<ref>Dr. A. Zahoor (1997). [http://www.unhas.ac.id/~rhiza/saintis/zarqali.html Al-Zarqali (Arzachel)], [[University of Indonesia]].</ref> and he discovers that the orbits of the planets are [[ellipse]]s and not circles.<ref>[[Robert Briffault]] (1938). ''The Making of Humanity'', p. 190.</ref> |
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| − | ;1029: The purification process for [[potassium nitrate]] (saltpetre; ''natrun'' or ''barud'' in Arabic) was first described by the [[Alchemy and chemistry in Islam|Muslim chemist]] Ibn Bakhtawayh in his ''Al-Muqaddimat''.<ref name=Gunpowder>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%202.htm Gunpowder Composition for Rockets and Cannon in Arabic Military Treatises In Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries], ''History of Science and Technology in Islam''.</ref> |
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| − | ;c. 1030: [[Avicenna]] "observed that if the perception of [[light]] is due to the emission of some sort of [[Subatomic particle|particle]]s by a luminous source, the [[speed of light]] must be finite."<ref>[[George Sarton]], ''Introduction to the History of Science'', Vol. 1, p. 710.</ref> He also provided a sophisticated explanation for the [[rainbow]] phenomenon.<ref>[[Carl Benjamin Boyer]] (1954). "Robert Grosseteste on the Rainbow", ''Osiris'' '''11''', p. 247-258 [248].</ref> |
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| − | ;c. 1030: [[Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]] stated that [[light]] has a finite speed, and he was the first to theorize that the [[speed of light]] is much faster than the [[speed of sound]].<ref name=Biruni/> |
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| − | ;1030: [[Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]] discussed the [[Indian astronomy|Indian planetary theories]] of [[Aryabhata]], [[Brahmagupta]] and [[Varahamihira]] in his ''Ta'rikh al-Hind'' (Latinized as ''Indica''). Biruni stated that [[Brahmagupta]] and others consider that the [[Earth's rotation|earth rotates]] on its axis and Biruni noted that this does not create any mathematical problems.<ref>S. H. Nasr, ''Islamic Cosmological Doctrines'', p. 135, n. 13</ref> |
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| − | ;c. 1030: [[Al-Biruni]] agreed with the [[Earth's rotation]] about its own axis, and while he was initially neutral regarding the [[heliocentrism|heliocentric]] and [[geocentric model]]s,<ref>Michael E. Marmura (1965). "''An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-Safa'an, Al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina'' by Seyyed [[Hossein Nasr]]", ''Speculum'' '''40''' (4), p. 744-746.</ref> he considered heliocentrism to be a philosophical problem.<ref>[[George Saliba]] (1999). [http://www.columbia.edu/~gas1/project/visions/case1/sci.1.html Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe?] [[Columbia University]].</ref> |
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| − | ;1031: [[Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]] completes his extensive astronomical encyclopaedia ''Canon Mas’udicus'',<ref>Richard Covington (May-June 2007). "Rediscovering Arabic science", ''[[Saudi Aramco World]]'', p. 2-16.</ref> in which he records his astronomical findings and formulates astronomical tables. It presents a geocentric model, tabulating the distance of all the [[celestial spheres]] from the central Earth.<ref>S. H. Nasr, ''Islamic Cosmological Doctrines'', p. 134</ref> |
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| − | ;c. 1037: [[Alhazen]] discusses the theory of [[Gravitation|attraction]] between [[mass]]es, and it seems that he was aware of the [[Magnitude (mathematics)|magnitude]] of [[acceleration]] due to [[gravity]]. He also discovered the law of [[inertia]], known as [[Newton's laws of motion|Newton's first law of motion]], when he stated that a body moves [[perpetual motion|perpetually]] unless an external force stops it or changes its direction of [[Motion (physics)|motion]].<ref name=Bizri>Dr. Nader El-Bizri, "Ibn al-Haytham or Alhazen", in Josef W. Meri (2006), ''Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopaedia'', Vol. II, p. 343-345, [[Routledge]], New York, London.</ref> He insisted these physical laws apply to [[Astronomical object|heavenly bodies]] as well<ref>Pierre Duhem (1908, 1969). ''To Save the Phenomena: An Essay on the Idea of Physical theory from Plato to Galileo'', p. 28. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.</ref>. He outlines an alternative to the [[Ptolemaic model]] in ''The Model of the Motions of the Planets''. His reform excluded [[cosmology]], as he developed a systematic study of celestial [[kinematics]] that was completely [[geometry|geometric]].<ref>Roshdi Rashed (2007). "The Celestial Kinematics of Ibn al-Haytham", ''Arabic Sciences and Philosophy'' '''17''', p. 7-55. [[Cambridge University Press]].</ref> |
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| − | ;1038: Ibn Bassal invents the [[flywheel]] in [[al-Andalus]], and he first employs it in a [[Noria]] and a Saqiya [[chain pump]].<ref>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Notes/Notes%204.htm Flywheel Effect for a ''Saqiya''].</ref> |
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| − | ;1087: [[Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī]] publishes the ''Almanac of Azarqueil'', the first [[almanac]]. A [[Latin]] translation and adaptation of the work appeared as the ''[[Tables of Toledo]]'' in the 12th century and the ''[[Alfonsine tables]]'' in the 13th century.<ref>{{Harv|Glick|Livesey|Wallis|2005|p=30}}</ref><ref>{{Harvard reference |first1=Thomas F. |last1=Glick |first2=Steven John |last2=Livesey |first3=Faith |last3=Wallis |year=2005 |title=Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0415969301 |page=30}}</ref> |
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| − | ;1090s: [[Omar Khayyám]], a mathematician and poet, "gave a complete classification of [[cubic equation]]s with geometric solutions found by means of intersecting [[conic section]]s. Khayyam also wrote that he hoped to give a full description of the algebraic solution of cubic equations in a later work.<ref name="one"/> |
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| − | ;1091: An early [[university]], the [[Al-Nizamiyya of Baghdad]], was founded, and is considered the "largest [[Medieval university|university of the Medieval world]]".<ref>[http://taylorandfrancis.metapress.com/index/1F7AAVLC25YV4PF2.pdf A European Civil Project of a Documentation Center on Islam]</ref> |
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| − | == 12th century == |
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| − | ;c. 1100: The [[Ventilation (architecture)|ventilator]] is invented in [[Egypt]].<ref>David A. King (1984). "Architecture and Astronomy: The Ventilators of Medieval Cairo and Their Secrets", ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'' '''104''' (1), p. 97-133.</ref> The [[bridge]] [[Mill (grinding)|mill]], [[hydropower]]ed [[forge]] and [[finery forge]] are also invented in [[Al-Andalus]].<ref name=Lucas-65/> The [[war machine]] is also invented in [[Turkey]].<ref name=Terzioglu>[[Tosun Terzioğlu|Arslan Terzioglu]] (2007), "The First Attempts of Flight, Automatic Machines, Submarines and Rocket Technology in Turkish History", in ''The Turks'' (ed. H. C. Guzel), pp. 804-810.[http://www.muslimheritage.com/uploads/Rocket_Technology_in_Turkish_history1.pdf]</ref> |
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| − | ;1100s: The [[Astrolabe|astrolabic]] [[Quadrant (instrument)|quadrant]] is invented in [[Egypt]].<ref>Roberto Moreno, Koenraad Van Cleempoel, David King (2002). "A Recently Discovered Sixteenth-Century Spanish Astrolabe", ''Annals of Science'' '''59''' (4), p. 331-362 [333].</ref> |
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| − | ;1100s: The [[Seljuqs]] had facilities in [[Sivas]] for manufacturing [[war machine]]s.<ref name=Terzioglu/> |
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| − | ;1100s: [[Ibn Bajjah]] is the first to state that there is always a [[Reaction (physics)|reaction]] force for every force exerted, a precursor to [[Gottfried Leibniz]]'s idea of force which underlies [[Newton's laws of motion|Newton's third law of motion]].<ref>[[Shlomo Pines]] (1964), "La dynamique d’Ibn Bajja", in ''Mélanges Alexandre Koyré'', I, 442-468 [462, 468], Paris. |
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| − | <br>([[cf.]] Abel B. Franco (October 2003). "Avempace, Projectile Motion, and Impetus Theory", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '''64''' (4), p. 521-546 [543].)</ref> His theory of motion later has an important influence on later physicists like [[Galileo Galilei]].<ref>Ernest A. Moody (1951). "Galileo and Avempace: The Dynamics of the Leaning Tower Experiment (I)", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '''12''' (2), p. 163-193.</ref> |
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| − | ;1100s: [[Jabir ibn Aflah]] (Geber) invents the [[torquetum]], an observational instrument and mechanical analog computer device used to transform between [[spherical coordinate system]]s.<ref>{{citation|first=R. P.|last=Lorch|title=The Astronomical Instruments of Jabir ibn Aflah and the Torquetum|journal=[[Centaurus (journal)|Centaurus]]|volume=20|issue=1|year=1976|pages=11–34}}</ref> |
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| − | ;1100s: [[Ibn Zuhr]] invents surgical procedure of [[tracheotomy]]<ref>A. I. Makki. "Needles & Pins", ''AlShindagah'' '''68''', January-February 2006.</ref> and supports human [[dissection]] and [[autopsy]]. A pioneer in [[parasitology]], he proves that [[scabies]], a [[List of skin diseases|skin disease]], is caused by a [[parasite]], thus disproving [[humorism]] theory.<ref>[http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/Islamic+medicine Islamic medicine], ''[[Hutchinson Encyclopedia]]''.</ref><ref>Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", ''Electronic Theses and Dissertations'', [[University of Notre Dame]].[http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615]</ref> He also finds causes of [[stridor]]<ref>Prof. Dr. Mostafa Shehata, "The Ear, Nose and Throat in Islamic Medicine", ''Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'', 2003 (1): 2-5 [4].</ref> and develops [[Inhalational anaesthetic|inhalant]] [[anesthesia]].<ref name=Hunke/> In ''The Method of Preparing Medicines and Diet'', he describes first [[parenteral]] [[Nutritional science|nutrition]] of humans with silver needle. He also writes early [[pharmacopoeia]], later the first [[Printing press|printed]] Arabic book in 1491.<ref>M. Krek (1979). "The Enigma of the First Arabic Book Printed from Movable Type", ''Journal of Near Eastern Studies'' '''38''' (3), p. 203-212.</ref> |
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| − | ;1100s: [[Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi]] writes a critique of [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian philosophy]] and [[Aristotelian physics]] entitled ''al-Mu'tabar''. He is the first to negate [[Aristotle]]'s idea that a constant [[force]] produces uniform [[Motion (physics)|motion]], as he realizes that a force applied continuously produces [[acceleration]], which is considered "the fundamental law of [[classical mechanics]]" and an early foreshadowing of [[Newton's second law of motion]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | last = [[Shlomo Pines]] | title = Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī , Hibat Allah | encyclopedia = [[Dictionary of Scientific Biography]] | volume = 1 | pages = 26-28 | publisher = Charles Scribner's Sons | location = New York | year = 1970 | isbn = 0684101149 }} <br> ([[cf.]] Abel B. Franco (October 2003). "Avempace, Projectile Motion, and Impetus Theory", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '''64''' (4), p. 521-546 [528].)</ref> Like Newton, he described acceleration as the rate of change of [[velocity]].<ref>A. C. Crombie, ''Augustine to Galileo 2'', p. 67.</ref> |
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| − | ;1100s: [[Muhammad al-Idrisi]] produced a [[world map]] and the first known [[globe]]. His ''[[Tabula Rogeriana]]'' was the most accurate world map in his time and was used extensively for several centuries through to the explorations during the European [[Age of Discovery]].<ref name=Scott>S. P. Scott (1904), ''History of the Moorish Empire'', pp. 461-2</ref> |
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| − | ;1100s: [[Damascus]] becomes a center for innovative [[Islamic pottery]] and [[ceramics]].<ref name=Mason-7>Mason (1995), p. 7</ref> |
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| − | ;1100s: [[Ibn Tufail]] and [[Nur Ed-Din Al Betrugi|Al-Betrugi]] are the first to propose planetary models without any [[equant]], [[Deferent and epicycle|epicycles or eccentrics]]. Al-Betrugi was also the first to discover that the planets are [[Luminosity|self-luminous]].<ref>Bernard R. Goldstein (March 1972). "Theory and Observation in Medieval Astronomy", ''Isis'' '''63''' (1), p. 39-47 [41].</ref> |
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| − | ;1110: [[Ibn Tufayl]] is born. He writes ''[[Hayy ibn Yaqzan]]'', a [[philosophical novel]]<ref name="Jon">Jon Mcginnis, ''Classical Arabic Philosophy: An Anthology of Sources'', p. 284, [[Hackett Publishing Company]], ISBN 0872208710.</ref><ref name="Attar">Samar Attar, ''The Vital Roots of European Enlightenment: Ibn Tufayl's Influence on Modern Western Thought'', Lexington Books, ISBN 0739119893.[http://bookshop.blackwell.co.uk/jsp/id/The_Vital_Roots_of_European_Enlightenment/9780739119891]</ref> which has a strong influence on the [[Scientific Revolution]].<ref name="Attar"/> |
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| − | ;1116: [[Al-Khazini]] writes the ''Sinjaric Tables'', in which he gave a description of his construction of a 24 hour [[water clock]] designed for astronomical purposes, an early example of an [[astronomical clock]], and the positions of 46 stars computed for the year 500 AH (1115-1116 CE). He also computed tables for the observation of celestial bodies at the [[latitude]] of Merv.<ref>[[George Sarton]] (1927). ''Introduction to the History of Science'', vol. I, p. 565. The Carnegie Institution, [[Washington]].</ref><ref>E. S. Kennedy (1956). "A Survey of Islamic Astronomical Tables", ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society'', New Series, '''46''' (2), pp. 7 & 37-39.</ref> The ''Sinjaric Tables'' was later translated into Greek by [[Gregory Choniades]] in the 13th century and was studied in the [[Byzantine Empire]].<ref>[[David Pingree]] (1964), "Gregory Chioniades and Palaeologan Astronomy", ''Dumbarton Oaks Papers'' '''18''', p. 135-160.</ref> |
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| − | ;c. 1120: [[Al-Khazini]]'s ''Treatise on Instruments'' has seven parts describing different [[scientific instrument]]s: the [[Triquetrum (astronomy)|triquetrum]], [[dioptra]], a [[triangle|triangular]] instrument he invented, the [[quadrant]] and [[Sextant (astronomical)|sextant]], the [[astrolabe]], and original instruments involving [[Reflection (physics)|reflection]].<ref>Robert E. Hall (1973). "Al-Biruni", ''Dictionary of Scientific Biography'', Vol. VII, p. 338.</ref> He also wrote another work on [[evolution]] in [[Alchemy (Islam)|chemistry]] and [[biology]], and how they were perceived by [[Natural philosophy|natural philosophers]] and common people in the Islamic world at the time. He wrote that there were many Muslims who believed that humans evolved from apes.<ref>[[John William Draper]] (1878), ''History of the Conflict Between Religion and Science'', p. 237, ISBN 1603030964.</ref> |
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| − | ;1121: [[Al-Khazini]] publishes ''The Book of the Balance of Wisdom'', in which he proposes that [[Gravitation|gravity]] and [[Potential energy|gravitational potential energy]] vary depending on distance from centre of Earth. He also differentiates between [[force]], [[mass]] and [[weight]].<ref>Salah Zaimeche PhD (2005). [http://www.muslimheritage.com/uploads/Merv.pdf Merv], p. 5-7. Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization.</ref> He also invents several scientific instruments, including [[steelyard]] and [[hydrostatic balance]].<ref>Robert E. Hall (1973). "Al-Khazini", ''Dictionary of Scientific Biography'', Vol. VII, p. 346.</ref> He also introduces [[experiment]]al [[scientific method]]s to [[statics]] and [[dynamics]], unifies them into science of mechanics, and combines [[hydrostatics]] with dynamics to create [[hydrodynamics]].<ref>Mariam Rozhanskaya and I. S. Levinova (1996), "Statics", in Roshdi Rashed, ed., ''[[Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science]]'', Vol. 2, pp. 614-642 [642]. [[Routledge]], London and New York.</ref> |
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| − | ;1126: [[Averroes]] is born. He is the first to define and measure [[force]] as "the rate at which [[Mechanical work|work]] is done in changing the [[Kinetic energy|kinetic]] condition of a material [[Physical body|body]]"<ref>Ernest A. Moody (June 1951). "Galileo and Avempace: The Dynamics of the Leaning Tower Experiment (II)", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '''12''' (3), p. 375-422 [375].</ref> and the first to correctly argue "that the effect and measure of force is change in the kinetic condition of a materially [[Friction|resistant]] [[mass]]."<ref>Ernest A. Moody (June 1951). "Galileo and Avempace: The Dynamics of the Leaning Tower Experiment (II)", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '''12''' (3), p. 375-422 [380].</ref> In [[Islamic astronomy]], he rejects the [[Deferent and epicycle|eccentric deferents]] introduced by [[Ptolemy]], thus rejecting the [[Ptolemaic model]] in favour of a strictly [[concentric]] model of the universe.<ref>Owen Gingerich (April 1986). "Islamic astronomy", ''Scientific American'' '''254''' (10), p. 74.</ref> |
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| − | ;1135: [[Sharafeddin Tusi]] is born. He follows [[Omar Khayyam]]'s application of algebra to [[geometry]], rather than follow the general development that came through al-Karaji's school of algebra. He wrote a treatise on [[cubic equation]]s which "represents an essential contribution to another [[algebra]] which aimed to study [[curve]]s by means of [[equation]]s, thus inaugurating the beginning of [[algebraic geometry]]."<ref name="one"/><ref name="three">R. Rashed, ''The development of Arabic mathematics : between arithmetic and algebra'' (London, 1994)</ref> He also invents the linear [[astrolabe]] (staff of al-Tusi).<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-342088/linear-astrolabe Linear astrolabe], ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''.</ref> |
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| − | ;1151: The use of [[homing pigeon]]s is introduced in [[Iraq]] and [[Syria]].<ref name=fbi>[http://www.fbipigeons.com/THE%20SPORT.htm First Birds' Inn: About the Sport of Racing Pigeons] </ref> |
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| − | ;1154: Al-Kaysarani invents the [[striking clock]] in [[Syria]].<ref>Abdel Aziz al-Jaraki (2007), [http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?articleID=685 When Ridhwan al-Sa’ati Anteceded Big Ben by More than Six Centuries], Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.</ref> |
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| − | ;1187: [[Mardi bin Ali al-Tarsusi]] invents the counterweight [[trebuchet]]<ref>Scott Farrell, [http://www.historynet.com/wars_conflicts/weaponry/3823351.html?page=2&c=y Weaponry: The Trebuchet]</ref><ref>Philip Daileader, [http://books.google.com/books?id=OVX8j0zR6QYC ''On the Social Origins of Medieval Institutions'']</ref> and the [[mangonel]].<ref>[[Jim Bradbury]], [http://books.google.com/books?id=fKFRvUiLEQYC ''Medieval Siege'']</ref> |
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| − | == 13th century == |
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| − | ;1206: [[Al-Jazari]] publishes ''The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices'', in which he authors fifty inventions, including mechanical [[clock]]s,<ref name=Hill2/> the [[elephant clock]], [[camshaft]],<ref>Georges Ifrah (2001). ''The Universal History of Computing: From the Abacus to the Quatum Computer'', p. 171, Trans. E.F. Harding, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (See [http://www.banffcentre.ca/bnmi/programs/archives/2005/refresh/docs/conferences/Gunalan_Nadarajan.pdf])</ref> [[crankshaft]],<ref name=Ganchy>{{citation|title=Islam and Science, Medicine, and Technology|last=Sally Ganchy|first=Sarah Gancher|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|year=2009|isbn=1435850661|page=41}}</ref> [[suction]] [[Water pipe|pipe]], [[Reciprocating engine|reciprocating piston motion]],<ref name=Hassan>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]]. [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Notes/Notes%202.htm The Origin of the Suction Pump - Al-Jazari 1206 A.D.]</ref> [[Computer programming|programmable]] [[humanoid robot]]<ref name=Sheffield>[http://www.shef.ac.uk/marcoms/eview/articles58/robot.html A 13th Century Programmable Robot.] [[University of Sheffield]].</ref> and [[castle clock]], [[Gate operator|automatic gate]],<ref name=Turner>Howard R. Turner (1997), ''Science in Medieval Islam: An Illustrated Introduction'', p. 181, [[University of Texas Press]], ISBN 0292781490.</ref> [[paper model]]s, [[sand casting]],<ref name=Hill2>[[Donald Routledge Hill]], "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", ''Scientific American'', May 1991, p. 64-69. ([[cf.]] [[Donald Routledge Hill]], [http://home.swipnet.se/islam/articles/HistoryofSciences.htm Mechanical Engineering])</ref> [[Crank (mechanism)|crank]]-driven [[chain pump]],<ref name=Hill-776>[[Donald Routledge Hill]], "Engineering", in Roshdi Rashed, ed., ''[[Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science]]'', Vol. 2, p. 751-795 [776]. [[Routledge]], London and New York.</ref> [[Hydropower|water-powered]] ''[[Sakia|saqiya]]'' chain pump,<ref>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%206.htm Al-Jazari and the History of the Water Clock]</ref> and [[Water clock|water-powered]] [[astronomical clock]]s.<ref name=Hill>[[Donald Routledge Hill]] (1996), ''A History of Engineering in Classical and Medieval Times'', Routledge, p.224.</ref><ref>Ibn al-Razzaz Al-Jazari (ed. 1974), ''The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices'', translated and annotated by [[Donald Routledge Hill]], Dordrecht / D. Reidel, part II</ref> |
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| − | ;1213: [[Ibn al-Nafis]] is born. He writes ''Commentary on Compound Drugs'', a commentary on [[Avicenna]]'s ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' concerning [[pharmacopoeia]]. It contains criticisms of [[Galen]]'s doctrines on the [[heart]] and the [[blood vessel]]s, and was later translated into [[Latin]] by Andrea Alpago of [[Belluno]] (d. 1520). A [[Printing press|printed]] version of his translation was available in [[Venice]] from 1547.<ref>C. D. O'Malley (1957), "A Latin translation of Ibn Nafis (1547) related to the problem of the circulation of the blood", ''Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences'' '''12''' (2), p. 248-249. <br> ([[cf.]] Dr. Albert Zaki Iskandar (1982), "Comprehensive Book on the Art of Medicine", ''Symposium on Ibn al Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait) <br> ([[cf.]] Dr. Albert Zaki Iskandar, [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/iskandar.html Comprehensive Book on the Art of Medicine], ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'')</ref> |
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| − | ;1228: Medieval French reports suggest that Muslim armies used [[explosive]]s against the [[Sixth Crusade]] army led by [[Ludwig IV, Landgrave of Thuringia]] in the 13th century.<ref name=Terzioglu/> |
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| − | ;1235: A [[gear]]ed mechanical [[astrolabe]] with an [[analog computer]] [[calendar]] is invented by Abi Bakr of [[Isfahan]].<ref name=Bedini>Silvio A. Bedini, Francis R. Maddison (1966). "Mechanical Universe: The Astrarium of Giovanni de' Dondi", ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society'' '''56''' (5), p. 1-69.</ref> His geared astrolabe uses a set of gear-wheels and is the oldest surviving complete mechanical geared [[machine]] in existence.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mhs.ox.ac.uk/astrolabe/exhibition/gearing.htm|title=Astrolabe gearing|publisher=[[Museum of the History of Science, Oxford]]|year=2005|accessdate=2008-01-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mhs.ox.ac.uk/students/03to04/Astrolabes/Starholder_history.html|title=History of the Astrolabe|publisher=[[Museum of the History of Science, Oxford]]}}</ref> |
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| − | ;1242: [[Ibn al-Nafis]], an [[Islamic medicine|Arab physician]] considered one of the greatest [[physiologists]],<ref>[[George Sarton]] ([[cf.]] Dr. Paul Ghalioungui (1982), "The West denies Ibn Al Nafis's contribution to the discovery of the circulation", ''Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait) <br> ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/drpaul.html The West denies Ibn Al Nafis's contribution to the discovery of the circulation], ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'')</ref> publishes another commentary on [[Avicenna]]'s ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' called the ''Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon'', in which he discovers the [[pulmonary circulation]] and [[coronary circulation]].<ref>Husain F. Nagamia (2003), "Ibn al-Nafīs: A Biographical Sketch of the Discoverer of Pulmonary and Coronary Circulation", ''Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'' '''1''', p. 22–28.</ref><ref>Chairman's Reflections (2004), "Traditional Medicine Among Gulf Arabs, Part II: Blood-letting", ''Heart Views'' '''5''' (2), p. 74-85 [80].</ref> He was also an early proponent of [[experimental medicine]], postmortem [[autopsy]] and human [[dissection]],<ref>Ingrid Hehmeyer and Aliya Khan (2007), "Islam's forgotten contributions to medical science", ''Canadian Medical Association Journal'' '''176''' (10), p. 1467-1468 [1467].</ref> and discredited erroneous [[Avicenna|Avicennian]] and [[Galen]]ic doctrines on the [[humorism]] and various parts of the [[human body]].<ref>Dr. Sulaiman Oataya (1982), "Ibn ul Nafis has dissected the human body", ''Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/index.html Ibn ul-Nafis has Dissected the Human Body], ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'').</ref> |
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| − | ;1244: [[Ibn al-Nafis]] completes first 43 volumes of [[Islamic medicine|medical encyclopedia]], ''The Comprehensive Book on Medicine''. One volume is dedicated to [[surgery]], describing "general and absolute principles of surgery" and various [[Islamic medicine#Surgical instruments|surgical instruments]], examines surgical operations, and is earliest to deal with [[decubitus]] of patient.<ref>Dr. Albert Zaki Iskandar (1982), "Comprehensive Book on the Art of Medicine", ''Symposium on Ibn al Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/iskandar.html Comprehensive Book on the Art of Medicine], ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'')</ref> Another section is dedicated to [[urology]], including issues of [[sexual dysfunction]] and [[erectile dysfunction]], for which it prescribes clinically [[Drug test|tested drugs]] as [[medication]].<ref name=Dayela>A. Al Dayela and N. al-Zuhair (2006), "Single drug therapy in the treatment of male sexual/erectile dysfunction in Islamic medicine", ''Urology'' '''68''' (1), p. 253-254.</ref> |
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| − | ;1258: The [[Battle of Baghdad (1258)|sack of Baghdad]] results in the destruction of [[Baghdad]] along with all its libraries, including the [[House of Wisdom]]. Survivors said that the waters of the [[Tigris]] ran black with ink from the enormous quantities of books flung into the river. |
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| − | ;1259: The [[Maragheh observatory]] is founded by [[Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī]] at the patronage of [[Hulagu Khan]]. It was the first example of the [[observatory]] as a [[research institute]] (as opposed to an ancient [[observation post]]).<ref name=Kennedy-1962>{{Harvard reference |last=Kennedy |first=Edward S. |year=1962 |title=Review: ''The Observatory in Islam and Its Place in the General History of the Observatory'' by Aydin Sayili |journal=[[Isis (journal)|Isis]] |volume=53 |issue=2 |pages=237-239 }}</ref> |
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| − | ;1260: The first portable [[hand cannon]]s (''midfa'') loaded with explosive [[gunpowder]], the first example of a [[handgun]] and portable [[firearm]], were used by the [[Egypt]]ians to repel the [[Mongols]] at the [[Battle of Ain Jalut]]. The [[cannon]]s had an [[explosive]] gunpowder composition almost identical to the ideal compositions for modern explosive gunpowder. They were also the first to use dissolved [[talc]] for [[fire protection]], and they wore [[fireproof]] clothing, to which [[Cartridge (firearms)|Gunpowder cartridges]] were attached.<ref name=Gunpowder/> |
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| − | ;1270: The first complete purification process for [[potassium nitrate]] is described in 1270 by the [[Alchemy and chemistry in Islam|Arab chemist]] and [[Inventions in the Islamic world|engineer]] Hasan al-Rammah of [[Syria]] in ''The Book of Military Horsemanship and Ingenious War Devices''.<ref name=Gunpowder>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%202.htm Gunpowder Composition for Rockets and Cannon in Arabic Military Treatises In Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries], ''History of Science and Technology in Islam''.</ref><ref>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%202.htm Potassium Nitrate in Arabic and Latin Sources], ''History of Science and Technology in Islam''.</ref> He also states recipes for [[firework]]s and [[firecracker]]s.<ref name=Chemical/><ref name=Gunpowder/> |
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| − | ;1270: Famous [[psychiatric hospital]]s are built by [[Islamic medicine|Muslim physicians]] in [[Damascus]] and [[Aleppo]].<ref name=Syed-7-8/> |
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| − | ;c. 1272: [[Ballistics|Ballistic]] weapons were manufactured in the Muslim world since the time of [[Kublai Khan]]. According to Chinese sources, two Muslim engineers, Alaaddin and Ismail (d. 1330), built machines of a ballistic-weapons nature before the besieged city of Hang-show between 1271-1273.<ref name=Terzioglu/> |
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| − | ;1274: The first use of [[cannon]]s as [[siege machine]] at the siege of [[Sijilmasa]] in 1274, according to 14th-century historian [[Ibn Khaldun]]. |
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| − | ;1277: [[Ibn al-Nafis]] completes ''Theologus Autodidactus'', the first [[science fiction]] [[novel]], where he expresses many [[Theme (literature)|themes]] on [[Islamic medicine|biology, physiology]], [[Islamic astronomy|cosmology]], [[futurology]], [[geology]], [[natural philosophy]], [[psychology]], and [[Early Muslim sociology|sociology]]. The book also contains the earliest medical description on [[metabolism]].<ref>Dr. Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", ''Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/drroubi.html Ibn al-Nafis As a Philosopher], ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'').</ref> |
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| − | ;1285: The largest [[hospital]] of the [[Middle Ages]] and pre-modern era is built in [[Cairo]], [[Egypt]], by [[Sultan]] Qalaun al-Mansur. Treatment was given for free to patients of all backgrounds, regardless of gender, ethnicity or income.<ref>{{citation|first=Will|last=Durant|author-link=Will Durant|title=[[The Story of Civilization]] IV: The Age of Faith|publisher=Simon and Shuster, New York|year=1950|pages=330–1}}</ref> |
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| − | ;1288: [[Ibn al-Nafis]] writes down notes for upcoming volumes of his [[Islamic medicine|medical encyclopedia]], ''The Comprehensive Book on Medicine'', adding up to a total of 300 volumes in length, though he is only able to publish 80 volumes before he dies in 1288.<ref>{{Harvard reference |last=Iskandar |first=Albert Z. |year=1974 |contribution=Ibn al-Nafis |title=[[Dictionary of Scientific Biography]] |volume=9 |pages=602-606 [602-3]}}</ref> It is one of the largest known medical [[encyclopedia]]s, and was much larger than the more famous ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' by [[Avicenna]]. However, only several volumes of ''The Comprehensive Book on Medicine'' have survived in modern times.<ref>Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", p. 61, ''Electronic Theses and Dissertations'', [[University of Notre Dame]].[http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615]</ref> |
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| − | |||
| − | ;c. 1296: The first [[Islamic astronomy|astronomical uses]] of the magnetic [[compass]] is found in a treatise on astronomical instruments written by the [[Yemen]]i [[sultan]] al-[[Ashraf]] (d. 1296). |
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| − | |||
| − | == 14th century == |
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| − | ;c. 1300: When the [[Black Death]] [[bubonic plague]] reached [[al-Andalus]], Ibn Khatima discovered that infectious diseases are caused by [[microorganism]]s which enter the human body.<ref name=Syed>Ibrahim B. Syed PhD, "Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times", ''Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'', 2002 (2): 2-9.</ref> |
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| − | |||
| − | ;1300s: The [[spherical astrolabe]] is invented in the Middle East. [[Ibn al-Shatir]] also invents the [[Astrolabe|astrolabic]] [[clock]] in [[Syria]],<ref>David A. King (1983). "The Astronomy of the Mamluks", ''[[Isis (journal)|Isis]]'' '''74''' (4): 531-555 [545-6]</ref> and he also invents the [[compass dial]], a [[time]]keeping device incorporating both a universal [[sundial]] and a magnetic [[compass]], which he invented for the purpose of finding the times of [[Salah]] prayers.<ref>{{Harv|King|1983|pp=547-548}}</ref> |
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| − | |||
| − | ;1304: [[Ibn Battuta]] is born. A world traveler, he travels along a 75,000 mile voyage from [[Morocco]] to [[China]] and back. These journeys covered much of the [[Old World]], extending across much of [[Eurasia]] and [[Africa]], a distance readily surpassing that of his predecessors and his near-contemporary [[Marco Polo]].<ref>{{cite book| author=Mackintosh-Smith, Tim (ed.)| authorlink = Tim Mackintosh-Smith| title=The Travels of Ibn Battutah| publisher=Picador| year=2003| isbn=0-330-41879-3}}</ref> |
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| − | |||
| − | ;1304: [[Ibn al-Shatir]], a [[Islamic astronomy|Muslim astronomer]] from [[Damascus]], is born. In ''A Final Inquiry Concerning the Rectification of Planetary Theory'', he incorporates the [[Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi|Urdi]] lemma and eliminates the need for an [[equant]] by introducing the [[Tusi-couple]], departing from the [[Ptolemaic system]]. It was superior to the Ptolemaic model in terms of its better agreement with [[empirical]] observations.<ref>[[George Saliba]] (1994), ''A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam'', p. 245, 250, 256-257. [[New York University Press]], ISBN 0814780237.</ref><ref>Y. M. Faruqi (2006). "Contributions of Islamic scholars to the scientific enterprise", ''International Education Journal'' '''7''' (4), p. 395-396.</ref> Ibn al-Shatir's model laid the foundations for the [[Heliocentrism|heliocentric]] [[Copernican heliocentrism|Copernican model]].<ref>[[George Saliba]] (1999). [http://www.columbia.edu/~gas1/project/visions/case1/sci.1.html Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe?] [[Columbia University]].</ref><ref>M. Gill (2005), [http://www.chowk.com/show_article.cgi?aid=00005502&channel=university%20ave Was Muslim Astronomy the Harbinger of Copernicanism?]</ref> |
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| − | |||
| − | ;1313: The physician [[Ibn al-Khatib]] of [[Al-Andalus]] is born. He writes a treatise called ''On the Plague'', in which he stated: "The existence of [[Infectious disease|contagion]] is established by experience, investigation, the evidence of the senses and trustworthy reports."<ref name=Syed/> |
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| − | |||
| − | ;1371: The idea of a [[sundial]] using hours of equal length throughout the year was the innovation of [[Ibn al-Shatir]], based on earlier developments in [[trigonometry]] by [[Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī]]. Ibn al-Shatir was aware that "using a [[gnomon]] that is parallel to the Earth's axis will produce sundials whose hour lines indicate equal hours on any day of the year." His sundial is the oldest polar-axis sundial still in existence. The concept later appeared in Western sundials from at least 1446.<ref>{{cite web|title=History of the sundial|url=http://www.nmm.ac.uk/server/show/conWebDoc.353|publisher=[[National Maritime Museum]]|accessdate=2008-07-02}}</ref><ref>{{citation|title=The Sundial And Geometry|first=Lawrence|last=Jones|journal=North American Sundial Society|volume=12|issue=4|date=December 2005}}</ref> |
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| − | |||
| − | ;c. 1377: [[Ibn Khaldun]] writes the ''[[Muqaddimah]]''. It introduces a variety of concepts, including [[social philosophy]], [[social conflict]], [[Asabiyyah]], [[social capital]], [[social network]]s, [[corporate social responsibility]], [[economic growth]],<ref>Muqaddimah 2:272-73 quoted in Weiss (1995) p 30</ref> [[macroeconomics]], [[human capital]] development,<ref>Weiss (1995) p31 quotes Muqaddimah 2:272-273</ref> and the [[Laffer curve]].<ref>[http://www.heritage.org/Research/Taxes/bg1765.cfm The Laffer Curve: Past, Present, and Future]</ref> It also contributes to [[biology]] and [[chemistry]], describing biological theory of [[evolution]] based on [[empirical evidence]]<ref>''Muqaddimah'', pp. 74-75.</ref>. |
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| − | |||
| − | ;1380: [[Al-Kashi]] contributed to the development of [[decimal fraction]]s not only for approximating [[algebraic number]]s, but also for [[real number]]s such as [[pi]].<ref name="one"/> |
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| − | |||
| − | == 15th century == |
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| − | ;1400s: More than one million volumes of [[Science in medieval Islam|Muslim works on science]], [[Islamic art|arts]], [[Islamic philosophy|philosophy]] and [[Islamic culture|culture]] were burnt in the public square of Vivarrambla in [[Granada]].<ref>''A Chronology of Muslim History'', Parts IV, V (e.g., 1455, 1494, 1500, 1510, 1524, and 1538)</ref> |
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| − | |||
| − | ;1400s: [[Al-Kashi]] invents an [[analog computer]] instrument used to determine the time of day at which [[planetary conjunction]]s will occur,<ref>E. S. Kennedy (1947), "Al-Kashi's Plate of Conjunctions", ''[[Isis (journal)|Isis]]'' '''38''' (1-2): 56-59 [56]</ref> and for performing [[linear interpolation]].<ref name=Kennedy/> He also invents a mechanical planetary computer, the Plate of Zones, which could graphically solve a number of planetary problems, in addition to problems related to the [[Sun]] and [[Moon]].<ref name=Kennedy>E. S. Kennedy (1950), "A Fifteenth-Century Planetary Computer: al-Kashi's Tabaq al-Manateq I. Motion of the Sun and Moon in Longitude", ''Isis'' '''41''' (2): 180-3</ref><ref>E. S. Kennedy (1952), "A Fifteenth-Century Planetary Computer: al-Kashi's Tabaq al-Maneteq II: Longitudes, Distances, and Equations of the Planets", ''Isis'' '''43''' (1): 42-50</ref><ref>E. S. Kennedy (1951), "An Islamic Computer for Planetary Latitudes", ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'' '''71''' (1): 13-21</ref> |
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| − | |||
| − | ;1400s: [[Ali al-Qushji]] finds empirical evidence for the [[Earth's rotation]] through his observation of[[comet]]s<ref>{{Harv|Ragep|2001a}}</ref><ref name=Ragep2>{{Harv|Ragep|2001b}}</ref><ref>Edith Dudley Sylla, "Creation and nature", in Arthur Stephen McGrade (2003), p. 178-179, [[Cambridge University Press]], ISBN 0521000637.</ref> |
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| − | |||
| − | ;c. 1420: [[Jamshīd al-Kāshī]] computed and observed the [[solar eclipse]]s of 809 AH, 810 AH and 811 AH. He also is the first to use the [[decimal point]] notation in [[arithmetic]] and [[Arabic numerals]].<ref name="five">[http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Chronology/index.html Chronology of mathematics], ''[[MacTutor History of Mathematics archive]]'', [[University of St Andrews]], Scotland</ref> |
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| − | |||
| − | ;1424: [[Jamshīd al-Kāshī]] publishes his ''Treatise on the Circumference'' giving an accurate approximation to [[pi]] in both [[sexagesimal]] and [[decimal]] forms, computing pi to 8 sexagesimal places and 16 decimal places.<ref name="five"/> |
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| − | |||
| − | ;1427: [[Al-Kashi]] completes ''The Key to Arithmetic'' containing work of great depth on [[decimal fraction]]s.<ref name="five"/> |
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| − | |||
| − | ;1437: [[Ulugh Beg]] publishes his [[star catalogue]], the ''[[Zij-i-Sultani]]''.<ref name="five"/> |
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| − | |||
| − | ;1470s: [[Tabriz]] becomes a center for innovative [[Islamic pottery]] and [[ceramics]].<ref name=Mason-7/> |
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| − | |||
| − | == 16th century == |
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| − | ;1500s |
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| − | : The city of [[Shibam]] is built in [[Yemen]]. This city is regarded as the "[[Manhattan]] of the desert", and the earliest example of [[urban planning]] based on the principle of vertical construction. Shibam was made up of over 500 tower houses,<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/192 Old Walled City of Shibam], [[UNESCO]]</ref> rising up to 16 [[storey]]s high.<ref>{{citation|title=Land without shade|first=Hans|last=Helfritz|journal=Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society|volume=24|issue=2|date=April 1937|pages=201–16}}</ref> The city has the world's tallest [[mudbrick]] buildings, with some of them being over 130 ft high,<ref>{{citation|title=The Hadhramaut|first=J. G. T.|last=Shipman|journal=[[Asian Affairs]]|volume=15|issue=2|date=June 1984|pages=154–62|doi=10.1080/03068378408730145}}</ref> thus making them some of the first [[high-rise]] [[apartment building]]s and [[tower block]]s.<ref>{{citation|title=The Hadhramaut|first=J. G. T.|last=Shipman|journal=[[Asian Affairs]]|volume=15|issue=2|date=June 1984|pages=154–62}}</ref> |
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| − | |||
| − | ;1500s |
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| − | : [[Al-Birjandi]] continues the debate on the [[Earth's rotation]] after [[Ali al-Qushji]]. In his analysis of what might occur if the Earth were rotating, he develops a hypothesis similar to [[Galileo Galilei]]'s notion of "circular [[inertia]]",<ref>{{Harv|Ragep|2001b|pp=63-4}}</ref> which he described in an [[Experiment|observational test]] as a response to one of [[Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi]]'s arguments.<ref>{{Harvard reference |last=Ragep |first=F. Jamil |year=2001a |title=Tusi and Copernicus: The Earth's Motion in Context |journal=Science in Context |volume=14 |issue=1-2 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |pages=145–163 [152-3] }}</ref> |
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| − | |||
| − | ;1500s |
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| − | : [[Astronomy in medieval Islam|Shams al-Din al-Khafri]], the last major astronomer of the ''hay'a'' tradition, was the first to realize that "all mathematical modeling had no physical truth by itself and was simply another language with which one could describe the physical observed reality."<ref>[[George Saliba]] (2000). "Arabic versus Greek Astronomy: A Debate over the Foundations of Science", ''Perspectives on Science'' '''8''', p. 328-341.</ref> |
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| − | |||
| − | ;1500s |
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| − | : The mathematician [[Mohammed Baqir Yazdi]] discovered the pair of [[amicable numbers]] 9,363,584 and 9,437,056,<ref name="amicable">http://amicable.homepage.dk/apstat.htm#discoverer</ref> long before [[wikipedia:Leonhard Euler|Euler]]'s contribution to amicable numbers.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Costello |first = PAtrick | title = NEW AMICABLE PAIRS OF TYPE (2; 2) AND TYPE (3; 2) | journal = [[Mathematics of Computation]] | volume = 72| issue = 241 | pages = 489–497 | publisher = American Mathematical Society | date = 2002-05-01 | url = http://www.ams.org/mcom/2003-72-241/S0025-5718-02-01414-X/S0025-5718-02-01414-X.pdf | accessdate = 2007-04-19 | doi=10.1090/S0025-5718-02-01414-X}}</ref> |
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| − | |||
| − | ;1551 |
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| − | : [[Taqi al-Din]] invents an early practical [[steam turbine]] as a prime mover for the first [[steam-power]]ed and self-rotating [[Spit (cooking aide)|spit]] and [[smoke jack]]. He first described it in his book, ''The Sublime Methods of Spiritual Machines''.<ref name=Hassan>{{cite web |url=http://www.history-science-technology.com/Notes/Notes%201.htm |title=Taqi al-Din and the First Steam Turbine |accessdate=2008-03-29|last=Hassan |first=Ahmad Y |authorlink=Ahmad Y Hassan |work=History of Science and Technology in Islam}}</ref> |
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| − | |||
| − | ;c. 1556 |
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| − | : [[Taqi al-Din]] publishes ''The Brightest Stars for the Construction of Mechanical Clocks'', which describes the first mechanical [[alarm clock]], first [[Spring (device)|spring]]-powered [[astronomical clock]], and first [[clock]] and [[mechanical watch]] to first measure time in [[minute]]s.<ref>{{cite web|author=[[Salim Al-Hassani]]|title=The Astronomical Clock of Taqi Al-Din: Virtual Reconstruction|publisher=FSTC|url=http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=947|date=19 June 2008|accessdate=2008-07-02}}</ref> |
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| − | |||
| − | ;1559 |
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| − | : [[Taqi al-Din]] invents a 'Monobloc' [[pump]] with a [[six cylinder engine]]. It was a [[hydropower]]ed [[water]]-raising [[machine]] incorporating [[valve]]s, [[suction]] and delivery pipes, [[piston]] rods with [[lead]] weights, [[Trip hammer|trip]] [[lever]]s with [[Pin (device)|pin]] [[joint]]s, and [[cam]]s on the [[axle]] of a water-driven [[Scoop (tool)|scoop]]-[[Water wheel|wheel]].<ref>[[Donald Routledge Hill]], "Engineering", in Roshdi Rashed, ed., ''[[Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science]]'', Vol. 2, p. 751-795 [779]. [[Routledge]], London and New York.</ref> |
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| − | |||
| − | ;1577 |
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| − | : [[Taqi al-Din]] builds the [[Istanbul observatory of al-Din]], the largest astronomical observatory in its time, with the patronage of the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] Sultan [[Murad III]]. |
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| − | |||
| − | ;c. 1578 |
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| − | : [[Taqi al-Din]], at the [[Istanbul observatory of al-Din]], carries out astronomical observations. He produces a [[zij]] (titled ''Unbored Pearl'') and [[astronomical catalog]]ues more accurate than those of [[Tycho Brahe]] and [[Nicolaus Copernicus]]. Al-Din is able to achieve this with his invention of the "observational [[clock]]", a mechanical [[astronomical clock]] that can measure time in seconds.<ref name=Tekeli>Sevim Tekeli, "Taqi al-Din", in Helaine Selin (1997), ''Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures'', [[Kluwer Academic Publishers]], ISBN 0792340663.</ref><ref>{{citation|first=Aydin|last=Sayili|authorlink=Aydin Sayili|title=The Observatory in Islam|year=1991|pages=289–305}} ([[cf.]] {{cite web|author=Dr. Salim Ayduz|title=Taqi al-Din Ibn Ma’ruf: A Bio-Bibliographical Essay|url=http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=949|date=26 June 2008|accessdate=2008-07-04}})</ref> He also employs a [[Decimal separator|decimal point]] notation in his [[observation]]s rather than [[sexagesimal]] fractions.<ref name=Tekeli/> |
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| − | |||
| − | ;1579 |
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| − | : The first [[prefabricated home]]s and movable [[structure]] are invented by [[Akbar the Great]].<ref name=Habib>Irfan Habib (1992), "Akbar and Technology", ''Social Scientist'' '''20''' (9-10), pp. 3-15 [3-4].</ref> |
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| − | |||
| − | ;1580 |
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| − | : The [[Istanbul observatory of al-Din]] is closed down and destroyed on the orders of Sultan [[Murad III]]. |
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| − | |||
| − | ;1582 |
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| − | : [[Fathullah Shirazi]], a [[Persian people|Persian]]-[[History of India|Indian]] inventes the [[autocannon]], the earliest multi-shot [[machine gun]]. His rapid-firing gun had multiple [[gun barrel]]s that fired [[hand cannon]]s loaded with [[gunpowder]].<ref>A. K. Bag (2005), "Fathullah Shirazi: Cannon, Multi-barrel Gun and Yarghu", ''Indian Journal of History of Science'' '''40''' (3): 431-6</ref> Another [[cannon]]-related machine he created could clean sixteen gun barrels simultaneously, and was operated by a cow. He also invents a [[maize|corn]]-griding [[carriage]], which can be used to transport passengers and for grinding corn.<ref name="Amir">{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=-bE9AAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage&client=firefox-a#PPA281,M1|title=The Emperor Akbar|author=Friedrich Christian Charles August|coauthors=Gustav von Buchwald|publisher=Trübner & Co.|year=1890|accessdate=2008-04-04}}</ref> |
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| − | |||
| − | == 17th century == |
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| − | [[Image:Sail plan xebec.svg|thumb|right|[[Sail]] plan for a [[polacca]]-[[xebec]], first built by the [[Barbary pirate]]s around the 16th and 17th centuries.]] |
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| − | |||
| − | ;c. 1600: The [[Xebec]] and [[Polacca]] [[sailing ship]]s are used around the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. They originated from the [[Barbary pirate]]s, who successfully used them for [[naval warfare]] against European ships at the time. A combination of the [[Fore-and-aft rig|fore and aft]] sails and [[aerodynamics]], along with the improved square sail on the [[Polacca]], allowed these ships to sail much closer to the wind than European and American ships.<ref name=Bruxelles>{{cite web|publisher=''[[The Times]]''|date=28 February 2007|title=Pirates who got away with it by sailing closer to the wind|author=Simon de Bruxelles|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article1449736.ece|accessdate=2008-09-10}}</ref> |
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| − | |||
| − | ;1600s: Cartographic [[Qibla]] indicators were [[brass]] instruments with [[Mecca]]-centred [[world map]]s and cartographic [[Grid reference|grids]] engraved on them. They were invented in 17th-century [[Iran]].<ref name=Reflections>David A. King, "Reflections on some new studies on applied science in Islamic societies (8th-19th centuries)", ''Islam & Science'', June 2004.</ref> The cartographic Qibla indicator with [[sundial]] and [[compass]] was a Qibla instrument with a sundial and compass attached to it,<ref>David A. King (1997). "Two Iranian World Maps for Finding the Direction and Distance to Mecca", ''Imago Mundi'' '''49''', p. 62-82 [62].</ref> and was invented by Muhammad Husayn in the 17th century.<ref>Muzaffar Iqbal, "David A. King, ''World-Maps for Finding the Direction and Distance to Mecca: Innovation and Tradition in Islamic Science''", ''Islam & Science'', June 2003.</ref> |
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| − | |||
| − | ;c. 1659: A [[Seam (metallurgy)|seamless]] [[celestial globe]] is produced using a [[lost-wax casting]] method in the [[Mughal Empire]] in 1070 AH (1659-1960 CE) by Muhammad Salih Tahtawi with Arabic and Sanskrit inscriptions. Twenty other such globes were produced in [[Lahore]] and [[Kashmir]] during the [[Mughal Empire]]. It is considered a major feat in [[metallurgy]].<ref>{{citation|first=Emilie|last=Savage-Smith|title=Islamicate Celestial Globes: Their History, Construction, and Use|publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.|year=1985}}</ref><ref name=Kazi>{{cite web|first=Najma|last=Kazi|title=Seeking Seamless Scientific Wonders: Review of Emilie Savage-Smith's Work|url=http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?articleID=832|publisher=FSTC Limited|date=24 November, 2007|accessdate=2008-02-01}}</ref> |
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| − | |||
| − | == 18th century == |
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| − | [[Image:Tipu Sultan BL.jpg|thumb|right|[[Tipu Sultan]] invented the first [[iron]]-cased and [[metal]]-[[Cylinder (firearms)|cylinder]] [[rocket artillery]] in [[Mysore]], [[India]], alongside his father [[Hyder Ali]], in the 1780s.]] |
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| − | |||
| − | ;1720: The [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] dockyard architect Ibrahim Efendi invented a [[submarine]] called the ''tahtelbahir''. The Ottoman writer Seyyid Vehbi, in his ''Surname-i-Humayun'', compared this submarine to an [[alligator]].<ref name=Terzioglu/> |
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| − | |||
| − | ;c. 1790: [[Tipu Sultan|Tipu]], [[Sultan]] of [[Mysore]] (r. 1783-1799) in the south of India, an experimenter with war [[rocket]]s, invents [[iron]]-cased and [[metal]]-[[Cylinder (firearms)|cylinder]] [[rocket artillery]]. He successfully uses them against [[East India Company|British East India Company]] forces during [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]]. They influence British rocket development, leading to production of [[Congreve rocket]]s, soon put to use in [[Napoleonic Wars]].<ref>Roddam Narasimha (1985). [http://nal-ir.nal.res.in/2382/01/tr_pd_du_8503_R66305.pdf Rockets in Mysore and Britain, 1750-1850 A.D.] National Aeronautical Laboratory and Indian Institute of Science.</ref><ref name=r&ms>''[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]'' (2008), "rocket and missile"</ref> |
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| − | |||
| − | == 19th century == |
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| − | ;1800s: Introduction of European [[science]] to the Islamic world. |
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| − | |||
| − | == 20th century == |
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| − | [[Image:HLA-B*5101.png|thumb|[[Behçet's disease]], strongly associated with [[HLA-B51]], was discovered by [[Hulusi Behçet]] in 1924.]] |
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| − | [[Image:Neemtree.jpg|thumb|Compounds from the [[Neem]] tree were first extracted by [[Salimuzzaman Siddiqui]] in the 20th century.]] |
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| − | |||
| − | ;1924 |
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| − | : [[Behçet's disease]] is named after [[Hulusi Behçet]], the Turkish [[dermatologist]] and [[scientist]] who first recognized the syndrome in one of his patients in 1924 and reported his research on the disease in ''Journal of Skin and Venereal Diseases'' in 1936.<ref name="WhoNamedIt">{{WhoNamedIt|synd|1863}}</ref><ref>H. Behçet. Über rezidivierende, aphtöse, durch ein Virus verursachte Geschwüre am Mund, am Auge und an den Genitalien. Dermatologische Wochenschrift, Hamburg, 1937, 105(36): 1152-1163.</ref> |
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| − | ;c. 1931 |
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| − | : [[Salimuzzaman Siddiqui]] was a leading [[Pakistan]]i scientist in [[natural products]] [[chemistry]]. He is the pioneer in extracting chemical compounds from the [[Neem]] and [[Rauwolfia]], and is also known for isolating novel chemical compounds from various other [[flora]] in the [[Indian subcontinent]].<ref>M. Akhtar (1996), Salimuzzaman Siddiqui, ''Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society'', Vol. 42, November, pp. 400-417</ref> |
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| − | ;1944 |
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| − | : [[Iran]]ian physician and engineer [[Toffy Musivand]] is born. He develops an [[artificial heart|artificial cardiac pump]] a [[Simulated patient|patient care simulation]] centre, [[in situ]] sterilization, and a variety of other [[medical device]]s.<ref>[http://www.ottawaheart.ca/UOHI/bio/Tofy_Mussivand.jsp Tofy Mussivand PhD, FRSC], [[University of Ottawa Heart Institute]].</ref> |
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| − | ;1960 |
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| − | : Iranian physicist [[Ali Javan]] co-invents the [[gas laser]]. |
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| − | ;1960s |
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| − | : [[Abdus Salam]], Wess and Zumino were the first to successfully apply [[supersymmetry]] to [[particle physics]]. The [[W and Z bosons]] were also postulated by Salam, whose [[electroweak interaction]] theory postulated the W bosons necessary to explain [[beta decay]] and a new Z boson that had never been observed before. The W and Z particles were later confirmed during an experiment at [[CERN]]. |
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| − | ;1960s |
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| − | : The weak [[neutral current]] was proposed by [[Abdus Salam]], alongside [[Sheldon Glashow]] and [[Steven Weinberg]], for which they were awarded the 1979 [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] after it was confirmed in a 1974 neutrino experiment in the [[Gargamelle]] [[bubble chamber]] at [[CERN]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Physics 1979|url=http://www.nobel.se/physics/laureates/1979|publisher=[[Nobel Foundation]]|accessdate=2008-09-10}}</ref> |
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| − | ;1963 |
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| − | : A new structural system of [[Tube (structure)|framed tubes]] appeared in [[skyscraper design and construction]], pioneered by the [[Bangladesh]]i engineer [[Fazlur Khan]].<ref>{{Cite web| title = Evolution of Concrete Skyscrapers| accessdate = 2007-05-14| url = http://www.civenv.unimelb.edu.au/ejse/Archives/Fulltext/200101/01/20010101.htm }}</ref> The first building to apply it was the DeWitt-Chestnut apartment building which he designed and was completed in [[Chicago]] in 1963. It introduced the framed tube structure later used in the [[construction of the World Trade Center]].<ref name=Ali>{{citation|title=Evolution of Concrete Skyscrapers: from Ingalls to Jin mao|first=Mir M.|last=Ali|journal=Electronic Journal of Structural Engineering|volume=1|issue=1|year=2001|pages=2-14|url=http://www.ejse.org/Archives/Fulltext/200101/01/20010101.htm|accessdate=2008-11-30}}</ref><ref name=Swenson>{{cite web|author=Alfred Swenson & Pao-Chi Chang|title=building construction|publisher=''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''|year=2008|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/83859/building-construction|accessdate=2008-12-09}}</ref> |
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| − | ;1966 |
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| − | : The [[magnetic photon]] was predicted in 1966 by Nobel laureate [[Abdus Salam]].<ref> {{cite journal | author=A. Salam | title= Magnetic monopole and two photon theories of C-violation | journal=Physics Letters | volume=22 | year=1966 | pages= 683–684 | doi= 10.1016/0031-9163(66)90704-9}}</ref> |
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| − | ;1969 |
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| − | : [[Bangladesh]]i engineer [[Fazlur Khan]] designs and constructs [[John Hancock Center]].<ref name=Mir>Ali Mir (2001). ''Art of the Skyscraper: the Genius of Fazlur Khan''. Rizzoli International Publications. ISBN 0847823709.</ref> His major innovation in [[skyscraper design and construction]] for the building are the concepts of [[Tube (structure)#Trussed tube|trussed tube]] and [[Diagrid|X-bracing]],<ref name=Ali/><ref name=Banglapedia>{{cite web|title=Khan, Fazlur Rahman|publisher=''[[Banglapedia]]''|url=http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/K_0187.htm|accessdate=2008-12-09}}</ref> making it more efficient than earlier buildings.<ref name=Swenson/> It also introduced first [[sky lobby]].<ref name=Emporis/><ref name=Banglapedia/><ref name=Emporis>[http://www.emporis.com/en/wm/bu/?id=116876 John Hancock Center], [[Emporis]]</ref> |
||
| − | ;1969 |
||
| − | : Iranian scientist [[Samuel Rahbar]] discovered [[glycosylated hemoglobin]] (HbA1C), a form of [[hemoglobin]] used primarily to identify [[blood plasma|plasma]] [[glucose]] [[concentration]] over time. He was also the first to describe its increase in diabetes.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rahbar S, Blumenfeld O, Ranney HM |title=Studies of an unusual hemoglobin in patients with diabetes mellitus |journal=Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. |volume=36 |issue=5 |pages=838–43 |year=1969 |pmid=5808299 |doi=10.1016/0006-291X(69)90685-8}}</ref> |
||
| − | ;1970s |
||
| − | : [[Abdus Salam]] and [[Steven Weinberg]] were the first to apply the [[Higgs mechanism]] to the [[electroweak symmetry breaking]]. |
||
| − | ;1973 |
||
| − | : [[Fazlur Khan]] designs and oversees the construction of the [[Sears Tower]] (now [[Willis Tower]]).<ref name=Mir/> It featured one of his most important variations of the tube structure concept, the [[Tube (structure)#Bundled tube|bundled tube]], which he also used for the [[One Magnificent Mile]].<ref name=Banglapedia/><ref>{{cite web|title=Fazlur R. Khan|publisher=''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''|year=2008|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/316259/Fazlur-R-Khan|accessdate=2008-12-10}}</ref> Standing at 527.3 metres tall, the Sears Tower remained the world's tallest building up until the [[Burj Dubai]], currently under construction in [[Dubai]], surpassed its height as the world's tallest building.<ref>[http://www.visitdubai.info/news/burjdubai.htm Burj Dubai surpasses the height of Sears Tower in Chicago]</ref> |
||
| − | ;1974 |
||
| − | : [[Superalgebra|Supergeometry]] is the geometric basis for [[supersymmetry]], and was discovered by [[Abdus Salam]] in 1974.<ref>{{cite web|author=Lauren Caston and Rita Fioresi|date=October 30, 2007|title=Mathematical Foundations of Supersymmetry|publisher=[[arXiv]]|url=http://arxiv.org/PS_cache/arxiv/pdf/0710/0710.5742v1.pdf|url=2008-09-10}}</ref> The theory of [[supermanifold]]s was also first proposed in 1974 by [[Abdus Salam]] as a geometrical framework for understanding [[supersymmetry]].<ref>{{citation|first=Frédéric|last=Hélein|title=A representation formula for maps on supermanifolds|journal=Journal of Mathematical Physics|volume=49|issue=023506|year=2008|pages=1 & 19|doi=10.1063/1.2840464}}</ref> The notion of [[superspace]] was also introduced in 1974 by [[Abdus Salam]], and he also introduced the concept of [[superfield]], a [[scalar field]] on superspace.<ref>{{cite web|author=Ugo Bruzzo and Vladimir Pestov|date=February 1, 2008|title=What is Supertopology?|publisher=[[arXiv]]|url=http://arxiv.org/PS_cache/math/pdf/9810/9810056v1.pdf|url=2008-09-10}}</ref> |
||
| − | ;1974 |
||
| − | : The [[Pati-Salam model]], a mainstream [[Grand Unification Theory]], was proposed by [[Abdus Salam]] in collaboration with [[Jogesh Pati]].<ref>[[Abdus Salam]] & [[Jogesh Pati]] (1974), ''Phys. Rev.'' '''D10''': 275</ref> The [[preon]]s, "point-like" particles, were also conceived to be subcomponents of [[quark]]s and [[lepton]]s. The development a pre-[[quark]] substructure dates back to 1974 with a paper in ''[[Physical Review]]'' by Salam and Pati, who both coined the term "preon". |
||
| − | ;1979 |
||
| − | : [[Abdus Salam]] won a [[Nobel Prize]] for his work on the [[Electroweak theory]]. |
||
| − | ;1986 |
||
| − | : The [[wikipedia:Brain (computer virus)|Brain]] [[wikipedia:boot sector|boot sector]] virus was released in January 1986. Brain was the first [[wikipedia:Computer virus|PC virus]], and the program responsible for the first [[wikipedia:IBM PC compatible|PC]] virus epidemic. The virus is also known as Lahore, Pakistani, Pakistani Brain, and Pakistani flu, as it was created in [[wikipedia:Lahore|Lahore]], [[Pakistan]] by 19 year-old Pakistani programmer, Basit Farooq Alvi, and his brother, Amjad Farooq Alvi.<ref name="theregisterJanuary2006">{{cite web|url=http://www.theregister.co.uk/2006/01/19/pc_virus_at_20/|title=PC virus celebrates 20th birthday|last=Leyden|first=John|date=January 19, 2006|work=[[The Register]]|accessdate=March 21, 2011}}</ref> They included their names, phone number and address in the code.<ref>Mat Honan - [{{Reference archive|1=http://gizmodo.com/5827405/why-hackers-write-computer-viruses|2=2012-09-15}} Why Hackers Write Computer Viruses] - Gizmodo, August 4, 2011</ref><ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.ted.com/talks/mikko_hypponen_fighting_viruses_defending_the_net.html|2=2012-09-15}} Mikko Hypponen: Fighting viruses, defending the net] - TED, July 2011</ref> |
||
| − | ;1993 |
||
| − | : The light harp, a variation of the [[wikipedia:laser harp|laser harp]], is an electronic musical instrument that plays music without any physical contact, or without even any lasers showing, but the music is played by the musician moving their arms or legs through the air above certain areas of the device. It was invented by martial artistist and musician, Assaf Gurner, who publically presented his invention in 1993. It was also the basis for the [http://www.giantbomb.com/sega-activator/3000-8/ Sega Activator], the first full-body [http://www.giantbomb.com/motion-control/3015-474/ motion controller] for video games.<ref>{{cite video |title=Light Harp at CES 1993 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YoxsnCiX05k |publisher=[[YouTube]] |accessdate=2010-07-06}}</ref><ref name="Activator"/> |
||
| − | ;1995 |
||
| − | : The first [[wikipedia:Online auction|Web-based auction]] sites appeared in 1995 with Onsale and [[wikipedia:eBay|eBay]], founded by [[Iran]]ian American computer programmer [[wikipedia:Pierre Omidyar|Pierre Omidyar]]. These were the first to take advantage of the technologies offered by the Web, including the use of automated bids entered through electronic forms, and search engines and clickable categories to allow bidders to locate their items of interest.<ref name="cohen">{{cite book | title=The Perfect Store | first=Adam | last=Cohen | year=2003 | isbn=0-316-16493-3 | publisher=Back Bay Books | location=Boston}}</ref> |
||
| − | ;1996 |
||
| − | : VideoLogic (now [[wikipedia:Imagination Technologies|Imagination Technologies]]), founded by Iranian computer engineer [[wikipedia:Hossein Yassaie|Hossein Yassaie]], released the [[wikipedia:PowerVR|PowerVR]] graphics accelerator card in 1996. It was the first [[w:c:gaming:Graphics processing unit|GPU (graphics processing unit)]] graphics accelerator card to introduce near [[w:c:gaming:arcade game|arcade]] quality 3D graphics to a home system, demonstrated by a port of arcade game ''[http://www.giantbomb.com/rave-racer/3030-23244/ Rave Racer]'' (1995) in early 1996. |
||
| − | ;1998 |
||
| − | : [[wikipedia:Hossein Yassaie|Hossein Yassaie]]'s VideoLogic releases the [[wikipedia:PowerVR|PowerVR2]] [[w:c:gaming:Graphics processing unit|GPU (graphics processing unit)]] chipset as part of [[w:c:gaming:Sega|Sega]]'s [[w:c:gaming:Dreamcast|Dreamcast]] game console. It was the first GPU chipset that was capable of producing true arcade quality [[w:c:gaming:Three-dimensional|3D graphics]] on a home system, with the [http://www.system16.com/hardware.php?id=721 Sega Naomi] arcade system also using the same PowerVR2 graphics chipset. One of the 3D graphical techniques it introduced is [[wikipedia:Hidden surface determination|hidden surface removal]]. |
||
| − | |||
| − | == 21st century == |
||
| − | [[Image:Pabellón-Puente Zaragoza.jpg|thumb|[[Bridge Pavilion]], constructed by [[Iraq]]i architect [[Zaha Hadid]].]] |
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| − | |||
| − | ;2000 |
||
| − | : Real-time [[online]] anti-[http://web.archive.org/web/20081217031520/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_fraud fraud] system pioneered by Bangladeshi-American computer scientist [http://web.archive.org/web/20081217031520/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jawed_Karim Jawed Karim] for [http://web.archive.org/web/20081217031520/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PayPal PayPal].<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-17">[http://web.archive.org/web/20081217031520/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inventions_in_the_modern_Islamic_world#cite_note-17 [18]]</sup> This is the first commercial [[wikipedia:e-commerce payment system|e-commerce payment system]], and remains the most popular. |
||
| − | ;2000 |
||
| − | : ''[[w:c:gaming:Fear Effect|Fear Effect]]'' (2000), programmed by [http://www.mobygames.com/developer/sheet/view/developerId,83581/ Mohammad Asaduzzaman], is often considered to be the first video game to feature real-time, [[w:c:gaming:Cel-shaded animation|cel-shaded]] [[w:c:gaming:Three-dimensional|3D graphics]]. |
||
| − | ;2000s |
||
| − | : In [[electrochemistry]], Iranian scientist Ali Eftekhari<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20060709152343/www.merc.ac.ir/eftekhari/index.htm Eftekhari Research Group in MERC]</ref> is regarded as a founder of electrochemical [[nanotechnology]],<ref>[http://www.wiley-vch.de/publish/en/books/bySubjectMS00/ISBN3-527-31876-3/?sID=b769201ff074e79e9824491197364440 Nanostructured Materials in Electrochemistry]</ref> particularly for his development of [[carbon nanotube]]s, and for developing a method for its mass production.<ref>[http://www.ait.ac/papers/eftekhari/C44-1343.pdf A. Eftekhari, et al, ''Carbon'', 2006, 44 (7), 1343 – 1345.]</ref><ref>A. Eftekhari, et al, ''Chemistry Letters'', 2006, 35 (1), 138 – 139.</ref> Eftekhari also carries out scientific research on the field of [[fractal]] geometry, pioneering the concept of fractal electrochemistry.<ref>[http://www.ait.ac/papers/eftekhari/EA48-2831.pdf A. Eftekhari, ''Electrochimica Acta'', 2003, 48 (19), 2831 – 2839.]</ref><ref>A. Eftekhari, et al, ''Applied Surface Sciencs'', 2005, 239 (3), 311 – 319</ref><ref>A. Eftekhari, ''Surface Review and Letters'', 2006, 13 (5), 703 – 710</ref><ref>A. Eftekhari, ''Physica B'', 2007, 387 (1-2), 92 – 97</ref><ref>A. Eftekhari, et al, ''Surface Review and Letters'', 2006, 13 (6), 753 – 758</ref> |
||
| − | ;2001 |
||
| − | : [[Iran]]ian physicist [[Mehran Kardar]] is awarded the [[Guggenheim Fellowship]] prize for his development of the Kardar-Parisi-Zhang (KPZ) equation in [[theoretical physics]]. |
||
| − | ;2001 |
||
| − | : [[w:c:gaming:Graphics processing unit|Mobile GPU]] (graphics processing unit) pioneered by Iranian engineer''' '''[[wikipedia:Hossein Yassaie|Hossein Yassaie]], with the [[wikipedia:PowerVR|PowerVR MBX]] graphics chipset. This later becomes the basis for the video technology of the [[wikipedia:iPhone|iPhone]], paving the way for the [[wikipedia:smartphone|smartphone]] revolution. |
||
| − | ;2004 |
||
| − | : [[Anousheh Ansari|Anouseh]] and [[Amir Ansari]] set up the [[Ansari X Prize]] to encourage private [[spaceflight]] research. |
||
| − | ;2005 |
||
| − | : Bangladeshi-American computer scientist [[Jawed Karim]] pioneers the idea of a [[video hosting service]] with a [[web browser]]-embedded [[Video player (software)|video player]] and co-founded [[YouTube]] as a result.<ref>Jim Hopkins, [http://www.usatoday.com/tech/news/2006-10-11-youtube-karim_x.htm Surprise! There's a third YouTube co-founder], ''[[USA Today]]'', 10-11-2006.</ref> The YouTube video hosting service constitutes a social networking website on which practically any individual or organization with Internet access can upload videos that can be seen almost immediately by wide audiences. As the world's largest video platform, YouTube has had [[wikipedia:Social impact of YouTube|impact in many fields]], which includes having directly shaped world events, social culture, journalism, engagement between people and institutions, personal expression, advertising and marketing, and reaching wider audiences. |
||
| − | ;2006 |
||
| − | : [[Electrochemical reaction]] is a concept developed by Ali Eftekhari, who shows that processes can be considered as [[fractal]]s. This mathematical factor can be used for the improvement of electrochemical reactions, e.g. in [[fuel cell]]s.<ref>A. Eftekhari, ''Journal of the Electrochemical Society'', 2004, 151 (9), E291 – E296</ref> He also carried out scientific research on the field of [[fractal]] geometry and applied it to different aspects of science, thus pioneering the concept of fractal [[electrochemistry]].<ref>A. Eftekhari, ''Electrochimica Acta'', 2003, 48 (19), 2831 – 2839</ref><ref>A. Eftekhari, et al, ''Applied Surface Sciencs'', 2005, 239 (3), 311 – 319</ref><ref>A. Eftekhari, ''Surface Review and Letters'', 2006, 13 (5), 703 – 710</ref><ref>A. Eftekhari, ''Physica B'', 2007, 387 (1-2), 92 – 97</ref><ref>A. Eftekhari, et al, ''Surface Review and Letters'', 2006, 13 (6), 753 – 758</ref> He was also the first to utilize [[fractal]] geometry in the [[Content analysis|analysis of texts]].<ref name=Eftekhari>Ali Eftekhari (2006) Fractal geometry of texts. ''Journal of Quantitative Linguistic'' 13(2-3): 177 – 193.</ref> |
||
| − | ;2006 |
||
| − | : The [[non-glaring headlamp]], a [[headlamp]] with a continuous long-distance [[illumination]] without [[glare (vision)|glaring]] effects, is invented in [[Turkey]] by Prof. Dr. Turhan Alçelik, and wins the silver medal at the IENA Invention Fair at [[Nuremberg]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.turkpatent.gov.tr/portal/default_en.jsp?sayfa=161&haber=360|title=Turkish Inventions Won Awards from the IENA Invention Fair|publisher=Turkish Patent Institute|date=2006-11-10|accessdate=2008-08-09}}</ref> and the technical jury's first prize at the 34th International Exhibition Of Invention, New Techniques And Products, at [[Geneva]].<ref>{{cite news | title = Ödüllü far yollarda | url = http://www.radikal.com.tr/haber.php?haberno=183987&tarih=10/04/2006 | date = 2006-04-10 | accessdate= 2008-01-15 | publisher = [[Radikal]] }}</ref> |
||
| − | ;2006 |
||
| − | : [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-learning E-learning] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/microlecture micro-lecture] pioneered by Bangladeshi-American educator [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salman_Khan_(educator) Salman Khan], founder of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khan_Academy Khan Academy]. |
||
| − | ;2007 |
||
| − | : [[Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor]], who is both an astronaut and an [[orthopedic surgeon]], performs [[biomedical research]] in space. His medical experiments aboard the ISS were mainly related to the characteristics and growth of liver [[cancer]] and [[leukemia]] cells, and the crystallisation of various [[protein]]s and [[microbe]]s in space.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2007/10/11/nation/19136025&sec=nation|title=Mission in space|accessyear=2007|accessmonth=October 13|publisherTheStar|year=2007|author=theStar|language=English}}</ref> The experiments relating to liver cancer, leukemia cells and microbes will benefit general science and medical research.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2007/9/22/nation/18514133&sec=nation|title=Tapping into space research|accessdate=September 22, 2007|publisher=TheStar|year=2007|author=theStar|language=English}}</ref> |
||
| − | ;2007 |
||
| − | : "Vertically rising ladder" invented in [[Turkey]] by Murat Nural and wins the gold medal at the IENA Invention Fair at [[Nuremberg]]. It is designed to climb high points and facilitate suspending there. The user who inserts his/her feet on the movable climbers moves his/her feet backward and forward and climbs upward on the steps. When the user wants to suspend, he/she fixes the climber on the step. The same procedure is followed reversely while getting down.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.turkpatent.gov.tr/portal/default_en.jsp?sayfa=161&haber=540|title=Turkish Inventions Exhibits in Iena Fair|publisher=Turkish Patent Institute|date=2007-10-30|accessdate=2008-08-09}}</ref> |
||
| − | ;2007 |
||
| − | : [[wikipedia:Photorealism|Photorealistic]] real-time [[w:c:gaming:Three-dimensional|3D graphics]] pioneered by Turkish brothers [[wikipedia:Cevat Yerli|Cevat Yerli]], [[w:c:gaming:Faruk Yerli|Faruk Yerli]] and Avni Yerli) at [[w:c:gaming:Crytek|Crytek]] for the video game ''[[w:c:gaming:Crysis|Crysis]]''. The Yerli brothers and Crytek remain the world-leaders in photorealistic real-time 3D graphics technology, as of 2014. |
||
| − | ;2009 |
||
| − | : The [[Burj Khalifa]] in [[Dubai]] surpasses the [[Sears Tower]] (previously constructed by [[Fazlur Khan]]) as the world's tallest building.<ref>[http://www.visitdubai.info/news/burjdubai.htm Burj Dubai surpasses the height of Sears Tower in Chicago]</ref> |
||
| − | ;2010 |
||
| − | : The [[wikipedia:Samsung Galaxy Tab series|Samsung Galaxy Tab]], the first [[wikipedia:Tablet computer|tablet]] [[wikipedia:Smartphone|phone]], was developed by [[wikipedia:Samsung|Samsung]]'s [[wikipedia:Chief technology officer|chief technology officer]] Omar Khan and released in 2010. [http://phandroid.com/2011/07/11/omar-khan-the-godfather-of-galaxy-resigns-as-samsungs-cpocto/] |
||
| − | ;2010 |
||
| − | :[[wikipedia:Infrared|Infrared]] laser cane [[wikipedia:walking stick|walking stick]] invented by 14 year-old [[Asil Abu Lil]] and two of her classmates in [[Palestine]]. [http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/palestinian-girls-invent-laser-cane-1.897696] |
||
| − | ;2012 |
||
| − | : [[wikipedia:Biofuel|Plastic biofuel]] invented by 16 year-old girl [[Azza Abdel Hamid Faiad]] in [[Egypt]]. [http://www.mnn.com/earth-matters/energy/blogs/16-year-old-discovers-catalyst-to-turn-egypts-plastic-waste-into-biofuel] |
||
| − | ;2012 |
||
| − | :[[wikipedia:Quantum mechanics|Quantum]] [[wikipedia:spacecraft propulsion|spacecraft propulsion]] design pioneered by 19 year-old [[Aisha Mustafa]] in [[Egypt]]. [http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2148877/The-latest-entrant-space-race--Egypt-19-year-old-student-invents-futuristic-warp-drive-satellites.html] |
||
| − | ;2012 |
||
| − | : [[wikipedia:Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus|MERS (Middle East Respiratory Syndrome) coronavirus]] first confirmed and reported in a hospital in [[Amman]], [[Jordan]], among health care workers and nursing staff in April 2012, where the cases were determined to be H2H transmission. Later a 60-year-old male patient with acute [[pneumonia]] and acute [[renal failure]], who passed away in [[Jeddah]], [[Saudi Arabia]] on 24 June 2012.<ref name="rapid">{{cite web|url=http://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications/Publications/novel-coronavirus-rapid-risk-assessment-update.pdf|title=ECDC Rapid Risk Assessment - Severe respiratory disease associated with a novel coronavirus|date=19 Feb 2013|accessdate=22 Apr 2014}}</ref> [[Egypt]]ian virologist Dr. Ali Mohamed Zaki isolated and identified a previously unknown coronavirus from the man's [[Human lung|lungs]].<ref name=zaki8nov2012>{{cite journal |author=Ali Mohamed Zaki |author2=Sander van Boheemen |author3=Theo M. Bestebroer |author4=Albert D.M.E. Osterhaus |author5=Ron A.M. Fouchier |title=Isolation of a novel coronavirus from a man with pneumonia in Saudi Arabia |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |volume=367 |date=8 November 2012 |page=1814 |url=http://www.virology-bonn.de/fileadmin/user_upload/_temp_/Zaki_et_al.pdf |format=PDF |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1211721|issue=19 }}</ref><ref name="thechart.blogs">{{cite news |last=Falco |first=Miriam |title=New SARS-like virus poses medical mystery |url= http://thechart.blogs.cnn.com/2012/09/24/new-sars-like-virus-poses-medical-mystery/ |accessdate=27 September 2012 |publisher=CNN |date=24 September 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Dziadosz |first=Alexander |title=The doctor who discovered a new SARS-like virus says it will probably trigger an epidemic at some point, but not necessarily in its current form . |
||
| − | |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/05/13/us-coronavirus-egypt-idUSBRE94C0MH20130513 |accessdate=25 May 2013 |newspaper=Reuters |date=13 May 2013}}</ref> Dr. Zaki then posted his findings on 24 September 2012 on [[ProMED-mail]].<ref name="thechart.blogs" /><ref name="promedmail.org"/><ref name="promedmail.org">{{cite web |title=See Also |publisher=[[ProMED-mail]] |date=2012-09-20 |url=http://www.promedmail.org/direct.php?id=20120920.1302733 |accessdate=2013-05-31}}</ref> |
||
| − | ;2013 |
||
| − | : [[wikipedia:Bioplastic|Banana bioplastic]] invented by 16 year-old girl [[Elif Bilgin]] in [[Turkey]]. [http://www.illumemagazine.com/zine/comments/articleDetail.php?16-year-old-Turkish-Teen-Makes-Bioplastic-from-Banana-Peels-14386] |
||
| − | ;2013 |
||
| − | : [[wikipedia:Electric double-layer capacitor|Electric double-layer supercapacitor]] invented by 18 year-old Indian-American student [[Eesha Khare]]. [http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2327021/Esha-Khare-Teens-invention-charge-cellphone-20-seconds.html] This is the basis for her invention of the [[wikipedia:Battery charger|rapid battery charger]]. [http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2327021/Esha-Khare-Teens-invention-charge-cellphone-20-seconds.html] |
||
| − | |||
| − | == See also == |
||
| − | * [[Islamic Golden Age]] |
||
| − | ** [[Muslim Agricultural Revolution]] |
||
| − | * [[Islamic science]] |
||
| − | ** [[Alchemy and chemistry in Islam]] |
||
| − | ** [[Islamic astronomy]] |
||
| − | ** [[Islamic geography]] |
||
| − | ** [[Islamic mathematics]] |
||
| − | ** [[Islamic medicine]] |
||
| − | ** [[Islamic physics]] |
||
| − | ** [[Islamic psychological thought]] |
||
| − | ** [[Islamic sociology]] |
||
| − | * [[Inventions in the medieval Islamic world]] |
||
| − | * [[Inventions in the modern Islamic world]] |
||
| − | * [[Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe]] |
||
| − | ** [[Latin translations of the 12th century]] |
||
| − | * [[Science and technology in Iran]] |
||
| − | * [[Science and technology in Turkey]] |
||
| − | * [[Timeline of historic inventions]] |
||
| − | |||
| − | == Notes == |
||
| − | {{Reflist|3}} |
||
| − | |||
| − | == References == |
||
| − | * [[Donald Routledge Hill]] and [[Ahmad Y Hassan]] (1986), ''Islamic technology - an illustrated history'', ISBN 0 521 263336. |
||
| − | * Albert Z. Iskandar (1974), "Ibn al-Nafis", in ''[[Dictionary of Scientific Biography]]'', Vol. 9, p. 602-606. |
||
| − | * {{Harvard reference |
||
| − | |last=Ragep |
||
| − | |first=F. Jamil |
||
| − | |year=2001a |
||
| − | |title=Tusi and Copernicus: The Earth's Motion in Context |
||
| − | |journal=Science in Context |
||
| − | |volume=14 |
||
| − | |issue=1-2 |
||
| − | |pages=145–163 |
||
| − | |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |
||
| − | }} |
||
| − | * {{Harvard reference |
||
| − | |last=Ragep |
||
| − | |first=F. Jamil |
||
| − | |year=2001b |
||
| − | |title=Freeing Astronomy from Philosophy: An Aspect of Islamic Influence on Science |
||
| − | |journal=Osiris, 2nd Series |
||
| − | |volume=16 |
||
| − | |issue=Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions |
||
| − | |pages=49-64 & 66-71 |
||
| − | }} |
||
| − | * {{Harvard reference |
||
| − | |last1=Rashed |
||
| − | |first1=Roshdi |
||
| − | |last2=Morelon |
||
| − | |first2=Régis |
||
| − | |year=1996 |
||
| − | |title=[[Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science]] |
||
| − | |publisher=[[Routledge]] |
||
| − | |isbn=0415124107 |
||
| − | }} |
||
| − | * {{Harvard reference|title=Suhrawardi and the School of Illumination|first=Mehdi Amin|last=Razavi|year=1997|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=0700704124}} |
||
| − | |||
| − | {{Islamic studies}} |
||
| − | |||
| − | == External links == |
||
| − | * [http://www.muslimheritage.com/timeline/chronology.cfm Chronology of major events in Muslim Heritage] |
||
| − | * [http://www.muslimheritage.com Muslim Heritage] |
||
| − | * [http://www.1001inventions.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=main.viewSection&intSectionID=309 1001 Inventions] |
||
| − | * [http://yumtoyikes.com/2016/08/07/inventions-of-muslim-scientists/ Inventions of Muslim Scientists that changed the World] |
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| − | |||
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| − | [[Category:Timeline of Muslim history]] |
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Revision as of 14:20, 10 December 2016
File:Asslam.pngFile:Asslamx.pngFile:Asslamxx.png
Woah💦 Woah💦 Woah💦 Hold on💦 Stick em UP🙆🙆🙆🙆 THAT'S RIGHT🔫 THIS IS A ROBBERY🔫 Hand over the CUMMIES🔫💦💦 and no DADDY😫👨😨 gets hurt 📨Send this to your naughtiest👄 little 👄partners in crime 😏🔫😏🔫 and you'll get 💰💰💰SACKS💰💰💰 OF CUMMIES🍆💦💦💦 Get 5🔳 back, you're a 💓squishy💓 little rebel without a cause💋💋💋💋💋 Get 10🔳 back, you're a 😎😎😎career cummie💦 criminal 🙆🔫🔫 bustin all the daddies👨🌽🍆 banks💰💴 Get 15🔳 back, you're a little 😼😼FAT CAT😻😻 with mad stacks💰💦 of CUMMIES💰💦 Get 20🔳 back, you're the 👑👑CUMMIE 💦💦💦 QUEEN👑👑
